IN  MEMORIAM 
BERNARD  MOSES 


RHETORIC: 


A  TEXT- BOOK, 

DESIGNED  FOR  USE  IN  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES, 
AND  FOR  PRIVATE  STUDY. 


BY  REV.  E.  O.  HAVEN,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

PRESIDENT  Or  TUX  TTNIVKBfllTY   OF  MICHIGAN. 


Imago  Aniroi  Sermo  est. — SENECA. 


NEW   YORK: 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN      SQUARE. 
1869. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1869,  by 

HARPER  &   BROTHERS, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the 
Southern  District  of  New  York. 


POSES 


'":/« 
. 

-'.;•••    •«'••»•«     •     . 

...  .;;... 

•     ••••...  .    •     .  •    . 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

PART  I. 

WORDS   AND  THE    MATERIAL   OF    EXPRESSION. 

CIIMTF.R  PACK 

I.  General  Expression  of  Thought  and  Feeling 17 

II.  The  Origin  and  Use  of  Language- '21 

I 1 1.  How  to  acquire  the  Knowledge  of  Words 27 

I V.  Short  and  expressive  Words 80 

V.  Long  Words,  and  Directions  upon  the  Choice  of  Words. 37 

VI.  How  to  obtain  a  good  Vocabulary 45 

VII.  Discrimination  in  the  Use  of  Words 49 

VIII.  Faults  to  be  avoided 63 

IX.  Further  Directions  upon  the  Choice  of  Words 60 

X.  Further  Directions— continued 66 

PART  n. 

FIGURES   OF   SPEECH   AND  THOUGHT. 

I.  Tropes 77 

II.  Comparisons 87 

III.  Allusions 95 

IV.  Metaphors ^ 102 

V.  Antitheses * 113 

VI.  Allegories  and  Fables 122 

VII.  Hyperboles,  or  Extravagant  Expressions 131 

VIII.  Irony 138 

IX.  Personification  and  Prosopopreia 145 

X.  Apostrophe 156 

XI.  Sermocinatio,  or  Dialogue 162 

XII.  Vision 165 

XIII.  Wit •. 173 

XIV.   Wit— continued..'...                                                                       .  180 


885989 


vi  CONTENTS. 

PART  HL 

COMPOSITION  AND   STYLE. 
CHAPTER 

I.  Combinations  of  Words 189 

II.  Propositions 193 

III.  Sentences 199 

IV.  Loose  Sentences  and  Periods 202 

V.  Interrogations,  Exclamations,  Climax,  Repetition 208 

VI.  The  Melody  of  Sentences 213 

VII.  Style 220 

VIII.  Idioms  and  Proverbs 228 

IX.  How  to  acquire  a  good  Style 237 

X.  Style  adapted  to  produce  Emotion 244 

XI.  Taste,  and  its  Cultivation 251 

XII.  Style  modified  by  the  Nature  of  the  Production , . . . .  256 

XIII.  Addresses,  Lectures,  Orations,  Sermons 260 

XIV.  Epistolary  Composition 268 

XV.  Historical  Writing 274 

XVI.  Representative  Writing  and  Fiction -'7'.' 

XVII.  Poetry 286 

XVIII.  Species  of  Poetry 302 

PART  IV. 

INVENTION. 

I.  Nature  of  Invention,  and  some  general  Rules 311 

II.  Invention  in  Description 316 

III.  Invention  in  Narrations 323 

IV.  Invention  in  abstract  Subjects - 329 

V.  Invention  in  Discussions 333 

VI.  Invention  in  miscellaneous  Productions 343 

PART  V. 

ELOCUTION. 

I.  Propriety  of  the  Study  of  Elocution 351 

II.  The  mechanical  Elements  of  Elocution 355 

III.  Intellectual  and  moral  Elements  of  Elocution 366 

INDEX..  ..  375 


PREFACE. 


THIS  work  may  be  said  to  have  grown,  rather  than 
to  have  been  written  for  the  purpose  of  making 
a  book.  Having  used  in  the  class-room,  in  academy 
and  college,  many  of  the  text-books  on  Rhetoric,  an- 
cient and  modern,  foreign  and  American,  and  having 
instructed  some  classes  without  using  a  text-book, 
I  have  been  most  satisfied  with  the  result  when  the 
method  herein  presented  has  been  pursued.  This 
book  is  therefore  the  result  of  actual  experiment. 

Abstruse  arguments  about  style  and  oratory,  about 
the  conflicting  theories  of  taste  and  beauty,  about  con- 
viction and  persuasion,  and  the  laws  of  mind,  and  the 
philosophy  of  language,  are  all  good  and  valuable  in 
their  place ;  but  a  student  may  read  and  repeat  them 
with  but  little  more  effect  on  his  own  habits  of  speak- 
ing or  power  to  write  well,  than  he  would  receive 
from  an  equal  amount  of  study  in  mathematics,  medi- 
cine, or  law,  or  any  other  subject. 

At  the  same  time,  mere  exercises  in  composition, 
on  a  series  of  topics  presented,  with  a  few  outlines  and 
directions,  are  too  superficial  to  produce  the  desired 
result. 

What  the  student  needs  is  an  orderly  and  perspicu- 


viii  PREFA  CE. 

ous  presentation  of  the  theory,  with  illustrations  and 
directions  how  to  profit  by  it. 

Examples  both  for  imitation  and  disapproval,  in 
this  work,  have  been  drawn  from  modern  as  well  as 
ancient  writers,  American  as  well  as  foreign — from 
some  not  widely  known,  as  well  as  from  the  most  cele- 
brated. 

As  it  regards  the  best  use  to  be  made  of  the  book, 
I  would  respectfully  suggest  to  teachers  that  students 
of  Khetoric  should  always  combine  practice  with  study, 
and  should  be  required  to  produce  either  original  or 
selected  examples  of  every  figure  of  speech,  of  every 
kind  of  composition,  and  of  every  style  described. 
Once  a  week,  perhaps,  the  class  may  present  in  writing 
specimens  or  illustrations  of  what  has  been  studied 
during  the  week,  and  the  exercises  suggested  in  Part 
IV.  should  all  be  fairly  wrought  out  after  the  previous 
parts  have  been  studied.  In  this  way  the  science  and 
art  are  so  welded  together  in  the  memory  as  to  be 
of  permanent  value. 

It  is  also  an  excellent  exercise  for  a  student  to  be 
required  to  present  written  criticisms  of  some  produc- 
tions, well-known  or  otherwise,  according  to  the  prin- 
ciples stated  in  the  text-book.  It  is  comparatively 
easy  for  a  student  to  write  when  a  definite  subject  is 
suggested  to  him.  Khetoric,  like  music,  is  eminently 
practical ;  and  while  theoretic  study  is  indispensable, 
persistent,  careful  work  is  demanded. 


INTRODUCTION. 


RHETOKIC  is  both  a  science  and  an  art.  In  this 
respect,  it  is  like  all  other  subjects  which  embrace 
practice,  founded  upon  rules  that  grow  out  of  certain 
facts  in  the  nature  of  things :  such  as  Grammar,  Ar- 
chitecture, Music,  Painting,  Medicine  and  Surgery, 
Laud-surveying,  Engineering,  Navigation. 

With  reference  to  all  such  subjects  there  are  two 
classes  of  persons :  those  who  appreciate  and  approve 
a  proper  study  of  the  theory  as  a  basis  of  actual  work, 
and  those  who  insist  that  native  genius  alone  is  com- 
petent to  reach  the  desired  result. 

The  occasion  for  this  diversity  of  opinion  arises 
from  the  fact  that  there  are  men  who  have  studied 
carefully  practical  sciences,  but  have  not  been  able  to 
achieve  eminent  success  in  actual  work;  and  there 
are  also  men  who  have  not  studied  the  theory,  who 
are  still  remarkably  successful.  The  two  extremes 
may  be  seen  in  some  profound  students ;  perhaps  teach- 
ers of  elocution,  for  instance,  who  can  not  make  an 
effective  extempore  speech,  or  of  Rhetoric,  who  can 
not  write  a  popular  book  or  essay ;  and  in  some  who 
have  never  studied  the  theory  of  their  profession,  and 
are  yet  eminent  as  "  natural  painters,"  "  natural  mu- 
sicians," and  "  natural  bone-setters." 


X  INTRODUCTION. 

Occasionally,  too,  we  meet  with  men  who  hav« 
carefully  studied  the  science  underlying  some  art,  and 
have  also  become  skillful  in  the  practice,  who  seem  to 
lose*  a  consciousness  of  their  obligation  to  study,  and 
who  undervalue  and,  perhaps,  decry  their  own  study. 

It  is  a  great  misfortune  to  a  young  person  to  fall 
under  the  influence  of  such  men.  As  Archbishop 
Hare  well  said,  "  It  is,  indeed,  no  small  satisfaction  to 
think,  that  whoever  attacks  learning,  if  he  does  it 
weakly,  does  it  no  hurt;  and  if  he  does  it  well,  his 
own  performance  is  a  good  argument  against  him; 
while  he  shows  thereby  its  usefulness  as  well  as  his 
own  ingratitude."* 

It  is  not  to  be  denied  that,  men  differ  in  constitu- 
tional ability,  and  that  many,  without  a  close  and  sys- 
tematic examination  of  the  theory,  have  exhibited  re- 
markable talent.  But  at  the  same  time  all  who  de- 
sire to  excel  in  any  art  should  study  the  science  on 
which  it  is  based  as  thoroughly  and  exhaustively  as 
their  opportunities  will  allow.  They  should  become 
familiar  with  principles  and  with  the  best  examples, 
and  even  with  associated  sciences.  This  course  has 
been  faithfully  and  laboriously  pursued  by  the  strong- 
est and  most  efficient  men.  Thorough  study  will  not 
restrain  native  genius,  but  develop  and  direct  it ;  and 
if  for  a  time  it  represses  extravagance  that  might  -ex- 

*  The  works  of  the  late  Right  Rev.  and  learned  Archbishop  Hare, 
Lord-bishop  of  Chichester  (London,  1746),  vol.  i.  p.  50.  This  ap- 
plies to  the  depreciation  of  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  logic,  by  Macaulay, 
a  man  who  may  be  said  to  have  been  steeped  in  these  sciences  from 
his  childhood,  and  who  undervalued  them,  simply  because  he  had  been 
taught  to  obey  them  from  his  earliest  life,  and  could  not  appreciate  the 
value  of  studying  them. 


INTRODUCTION.  xi 

hibit  strength,  it  will  only   lay   the   foundation   for 
greater  triumph.  »• 

Especially  does  this  apply  to  Rhetoric.  There  have 
indeed  been  ignorant  orators,  but  it  does  not  follow 
that  general  information  is  not  useful  to  a  speaker. 
Battles  have  been  fought  and  victories  won  with  poor 
armor,  and  yet  good  armor  is  necessary,  and  for  the 
want  of  it  many  a  battle  has  been  lost.  There  are 
strong  temptations  to  superficiality,  and  to  a  spurious 
and  limited  facility  in  practice,  that  may  easily  be 
gained  by  the  poorly  prepared. 

The  ends  of  Rhetoric  can  not  be  acquired  by  the 
study  of  grammar  alone,  nor  by  general  reading,  nor 
by  practice.  It  has  rules  based  on  the  nature  of  lan- 
guage, and  on  the  nature  of  mind,  that  have  been  reach- 
ed and  reduced  to  a  system  by  the  most  thorough  re- 
search, which  can  be  mastered  and  employed  only  as 
the  result  of  diligent  effort. 

.  Indeed  it  has  been  a  favorite  opinion  of  the  most 
profound  adepts  in  this  science  that  only  a  virtuous 
man,  under  the  noblest  impulses  of  our  nature,  can 
attain  the  highest  excellence  in  the  art.  It  -requires, 
for  the  fullest  exhibition  of  its  power,  not  only  a  well- 
trained,  well-stored  mind,  but  a  heart  full  of  generous, 
healthy  emotion.  Such  was  the  opinion  of  Quintilian, 
antl  it  has  been  repeated  by  many  modern  writers  on 
Rhetoric. 

In  this  book  an  attempt  is  made  to  present  the  sci- 
ence naturally,  unencumbered  by  useless  technicalities, 
or  by  discussions  of  side  issues,  that  may  be  interest- 
ing to  mature  men,  who  alone  can  derive  any  direct 


xii  INTRODUCTION. 

advantage  from  them  in  the  improvement  of  their 
style  of  thought  and  utterance.  Some  works  on  Rhet- 
oric exert  no  appreciable  practical  effect  on  the  style 
of  the  student.  This  is  not  a  work  about  Rhetoric, 
but  endeavors  to  present  the  very  elements  of  effective 
expression  of  thought  and  emotion.  Its  good  results 
will  depend  largely  upon  the  care  with  which  the 
theory  is  studied, 'and  upon  the  repeated  efforts  made 
by  the  student  to  produce  for  himselt  the  various  kinds 
of  figures  of  speech  and  styles  of  composition  analyzed 
and  explained.  This  he  should  do,  partly  by  the  way 
of  rinding  examples  in  his  reading,  and  .analyzing 
and  classifying  them,  and  partly  by  inventing  original 
specimens. 

Part  I.  explains  the  primary  elements  which  com- 
position employs :  WORDS,  with  directions  how  to  ob- 
tiiin  a  copious,  and  correct,  and  efficient  vocabulary. 

Part  II.  explains  and  illustrates  another  and  more 
complicated  class  of  the  elements  of  expression,  called 
FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  AND  THOUGHT. 

'Part  III.  shows  how  these  elements  are  combined 
and  actually  employed,  and  their  result,  in  STYLE,  and 
in  the  leading  kinds  of  written  and  oral  productions. 

Long  dissertations  on  the  theory  of  TASTE,  and  the 
beautiful  and  sublime,  are  intentionally  omitted,  as  be- 
longing more  appropriately  to  Mental  Philosoph}-. 
The  province  of  Logic,  also,  is  not  encroached  upon 
by  dissertations  on  the  relations  of  thoughts  to  each 
other,  and  the  laws  of  Conviction  and  Persuasion. 
Often  rules  are  given  under  these  heads  that  no  writer 
regards  in  practice. 


INT  MOD  UCTION.  xiii 

Part  IY.  naturally  follows  as  an  investigation  of 
INVENTION  as  an  art,  showing  how  material  may  be 
best  acquired  and  employed,  according  to  previous  di- 
rections. 

Part  V.  contains  some  general  principles  and  direc- 
tions pertaining  to  ELOCUTION. 

This  is  believed  to  comprehend  what  belongs  prop- 
erly to  Khetoric. 


PART   I, 

RHETORIC,  AND  ITS  RELATION  TO  LANGUAGE. 


RHETORIC. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  EXPRESSION  OF  THOUGHT  AND  FEELING. 

1.  Definitions. — RHETORIC  is  the  science  and  art  of 
expressing  thought  and  feeling  by  language  in  the 
best  possible  manner. 

Aristotle  defined  Rhetoric  to  be  "the  faculty  of 
perceiving  all  the  possible  means  of  persuasion  on 
every  subject"  The  object  of  a  speaker  or  writer  is 
sometimes,  however,  not  to  persuade,  but  to  instruct 
or  to  amuse.  Quintilian  describes  Rhetoric  as  the 
"science  of  speaking  well;"  a  concise  and  beauti- 
ful definition,  if  it  be  understood  also  to  include  writ- 
ing. 

Speech  is  primarily  uttered,  but  much  is  now  writ- 
ten to  be  printed  and  read,  perhaps  silently,  and  Rhet- 
oric^ embraces  the  rules  by  which  language,  whether 
uttered  or  written,  may  be  the  most  effective.  It  is 
immaterial,  generally,  whether,  in  the  discussion  of 
these  rules,  the  primary  attention  be  directed  to  speak- 
ing or  writing.  When  the  nature  of  the.  subject 


18  EHETOMKJ. 

allows,  both  are  included,  though  but  one  is  men- 
tioned. ..  w. 

2,  Natural  Lant/ange.—rJt$<&ghl:  and  emotion  may 
be  communicaied:bjjene-|>oraon.to.  another  by  signs, 
such  as  moti6n3  "of  tine  ii'ands ;:  b£  inarticulate  sounds, 
such  as  groans,  shouts,  sighs,  and  by  touch.     Many 
animals  thus  communicate  with  each  other.     This  is 
called  Natural  Language. 

Some  of  the  methods  of  natural  language  are  high- 
ly cultivated  by  men,  and  the  use  of  some  kinds  of 
communication  without  language  is  often  employed 
to  add  efficiency  to  uttered  speech.  The  practice  of 
impressing  other  minds  by  motions  of  the  limbs,  the 
eyes,  and  the  countenance,  has  been  so  perfected  as  to 
become  a  good  substitute  for  language  in  the  transac- 
tion of  important  business. 

Navigators  are  guided  into  proper  channels,  and 
warned  against  unseen  rocks  and  other  dangers,  by 
lights  of  different  colors  and  shape.  The  movement 
and  size  and  intention  of  armies  are  communicated  by 
the  waving  of  flags  of  different  form  or  color,  as  pre- 
viously agreed  upon.  Trumpets,  steam- whistles,  and 
whatever  makes  a  noise,  maybe  used  to  convey  thought. 
Telegraphy  may  exist  without  the  use  of  words. 

3.  Thought  independent  of  Language.  —  From  the 
above,  it  is  evident  that  thought  and  emotion  can  ex- 
ist without  language.     Those  who  have  asserted  that 
man  can  not  think  without  the  use  of  language  either 
have  not  comprehended  the  subject,  or  they  have 
given  to  the  term  language  a  meaning  more  than  prop- 
ly  belongs  to  it,  and  made  it  embrace  all  signs  of 


THOUGHT    WITHOUT  LANGUAGE.  19 

thought  and  feeling.     The  very  brutes  feel  and  think. 
Mankind  can  not  be  inferior  to  them.* 

4.  Language  necessary  to  thorough  and  comprehensive 
Thought — But  without  articulate  language  the  thoughts 
of  men  would  be  scanty  and  imperfect,  and  their  emo- 
tions would  be  undeveloped  and  untrained.  This  is 
clearly  ascertained  from  facts. 

The  deaf  and  dumb  (speechless  because  they  can 

• 

*  Lord  Bacon  thus  presents  his  view  of  the  possibility  of  thought 
•without  language  :  "The  notes  of  things,  then,  which  carry  a  sig- 
nification without  the  help  or  intervention  of  words,  are  of  two  kinds : 
one,  ex  congruo,  where  the  note  has  some  congmity  with  the  motion, 
the  other,  ad placitum,  where  it  is  adopted  and  agreed  upon  at  pleas- 
ure. Of  the  former  kind  are  hieroglyphics  and  gestures,  of  the  lat- 
ter, the  real  cluirai-tt-rs  above  mentioned.  The  use  of  hieroglyphics 
is  very  old.  *  *  *  When  Periander,  being  consulted  how  to  pre- 
serve a  tyranny,  bade  the  messenger  follow  him,  and  went  into  his 
garden  and  topped  the  highest  flowers,  hinting  at  the  cutting  off  of 
the  nobility,  he  made  use  of  a  hieroglyphic  just  as  much  as  if  he  had 
drawn  it  on  paper.  In  the  mean  time  it  is  plain  that  hieroglyphics 
and  gestures  have  always  some  similitude  to  the  thing  signified,  and 
are  a  kind  of  emblems — whence  I  have  called  them  notes  of  things 
bycongruity"  (Advancement  of  Learning,  book  iv.  chap.  i.). 

Sir  William  Hamilton  styles  the  assertion  that  man  can  not  think 
without  language  "  a  psychological  hypothesis  in  regard  to  the  ab- 
solute dependence  of  the  mental  faculties  on  language,  once  and 
again  refuted  "  (Ed.  Rev.  vol.  cxv.  p.  208). 

The  art  of  pantomime,  or  of  expressing  character,  thought,  and 
action  by  attitudes,  gestures,  and  motions,  was  highly  cultivated  by 
the  Romans  in  their  theatres.  Some  of  the  thought  thus  conveyed 
was  instructive  and*  ennobling,  but  often  it  was  degrading  and  inde- 
cent, and  therefore  public  pantomimic  performances  were  severely 
denounced  by  the  early  Christian  preachers.  Macrobius,  who  lived 
in  the  early  part  of  the  fifth  century  after  Christ,  relates  that  Cicero, 
the  famous  orator,  and  Roscius,  a  famous  actor,  would  often  try  to- 
gether to  ascertain  which  could  express  a  thought  the  more  eloquent- 
ly, the  one  by  words,  and  the  other  by  gestures  and  motions. 


20  RHETORIC. 

not  hear),  however  advanced  in  years,  never  have 
many  thoughts  till  they  learn  language.  They  have 
no  idea  of  life  and  death,  of  cause  and  effect,  of  reward 
and  punishment.  That  beautiful  system  of  instruct- 
ing them,  devised  in  modern  times,  and  which  itself  is 
a  great  honor  both  to  modern  science  and  to  Christian- 
ity, shows  how  indispensable  words  are,  as  the  instru- 
ments of  thought ;  for  those  mutes,  who  have  never 
heard  a  sound,  must  learn  words  before  th'ey  can  pos- 
sibly receive  abstract  ideas,  such,  for  instance,  as  are 
expressed  in  the  Lord's  Prayer,  or  in  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States.  These  words  they  learn,  as 
they  learn  to  think,  not  imperceptibly,  as  hearing  per- 
sons do,  through  articulate  language,  but  slowly  and 
laboriously. 

No  instance  has  yet  been  known  in  the  whole  his- 
tory of  the  world  of  a  human  being  who  was  taught 
to  equal  the  average  of  children  often  years  of  age,  in 
thought  and  emotion,  without  a  knowledge  of  words. 
There  have  been  poets  and  orators,  learned  mathema- 
ticians,'  astronomers,  land-surveyors,  and  machinists 
without  sight,  skillful  artists  without  hands,  but  no 
men  of  thought  who  could  not  understand  and  use 
words.  Well  did  Quintilian  exclaim,  "  How  little  does 
man's  divine  mind  avail  him  if  speech  is  denied  !"* 

Words  are  the  signs  of  thought.  *We  learn  the 
thoughts  of  others  by  words.  We  store  up  thoughts 
by  the  memory  of  words,  or  by  writing  them,  to  be 
compared,  analyzed,  and  classified  at  our  leisure.  The 
basis  of  Rhetoric  is  a  knowledge  of  words. 

*  De  fnstitutione  Oratoria,  lib.  ii.  cap.  xvi. 


OKI  013    (JV  LAX  GUAM.  21 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  ORIGIN  AND  USE  OF  LANGUAGE. 
• 

5.  The  Origin  of  Language.  —  THE  origin  of  lan- 
guage can  not  certainly  be  ascertained  by  investiga- 
tion. The  Holy  Scriptures  represent  man  as  having 
language  from  the  beginning.  The  theory  that  hu- 
man beings  were  once  a  mute  and  almost  thoughtless 
herd,  like  the  brutes,  is  a  figment  of  the  imagination 
not  based  on  historic  evidence. 

The  various  views  of  those  who  have  endeavored 
to  account  for  the  origin  of  language  may  be  reduced 
to  these  three  theories : 

(1.)  It  was  communicated  to  man  by  the  Creator. 

(2.)  It  was  the  invention  of  man,  previous  to  which 
the  race  may  have  lived  without  it,  like  dogs  or  cattle, 
hundreds  and  thousands  of  years. 

(3.)  Man  is  so  constituted  that  it  is  as  instinctive 
for  him  to  speak  as  it  is  for  a  beaver  to  construct  a 
dam,  or  for  a  bee  to  store  up  honey. 

The  first  and  third  views  do  not  conflict  with  each 
other,  and  may  both  be  correct,  but  the  second  is  whol- 
ly imaginary  and  un philosophical,  and  all  who  de- 
mand a  basis  of  fact  for  their  opinions  to  rest  upon 
should  decline  to  receive  it. 

It  has  even  been  conjectured  by  some  that  if  a  com- 


22  RHETORIC. 

pany  of  human  beings  could  be  left  to  grow  up  togeth- 
er from  childhood  without  hearing  a  word  uttered  by 
any  other  person,  they  would  naturally  themselves  con- 
struct a  language.  This,  however,  is  only  conjecture.* 
There  is  a  wonderful  uniformity  in  many  of  the 
languages  spoken  by  men,  and  many  philologists  be- 
lieve that  all  are  variations  from  one  original  com- 
mon speech. 

6.  A  Variety  of  Words  necessary. — Without  wander- 
ing far  into  the  field  of  conjecture,  we  can  confident- 
ly assert  that  words  are  the  necessary  vehicles  of  ma- 
ture and  various  thought.      As  the  skillful  painter 
must  have  on  his  easel  materials  for  every  color,  and 
even  every  delicate  shade,  as  the  accomplished  organ- 
ist must  have  an  instrument  well-furnished  with  notes 
and  stops,  so  must  the  speaker  or  writer  have  a  copi- 
ous supply  of  these  airy  yet  permanent  representa- 
tives of  mental  and  moral  action — words.     Words  are 
winged  messengers,  without  which  thoughts  slumber 
in  a  silence  that  can  not  be  distinguished  from  death. 
Without  language,  the  body  would  be  little  better 
than  a  tomb  for  the  soul. 

7.  Natural  Language  itself  not  diminished,  but  im- 

*Rev.  Horace  Bushnell,  D.D.,  in  his  work  entitled  "God  in 
Christ,  with  a  Preliminary  Dissertation  on  Language, "  published  in 
Hartford  in  1 849,  relates  an  instance  of  two  twin  boys  in  Connecti- 
cut who  constructed  a  language  for  each  other  in  infancy,  and  would 
not  use  their  mother-tongue.  Unfortunately  one  of  them  died,  "  and 
with  him  died,  never  to  be  spoken  again,  what,  beyond  any  reason  for 
doubt,  was  the  root  of  a  new  original  diversity  of  human  speech — a 
new  tongue."  The  instance  is  not  given  with  sufficient  fullness  and 
definiteness  to  produce  conviction. 


W(JltU-PAINTI.\  23 

proved  by  Speech. — So  essential  is  speech  to  the  thor- 
ough culture  of  the  mind  that  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  natural  language  itself  is  not  rendered  by  it 
more  efficient  than  it  possibly  could  have  been  with- 
out the  cultivation  secured  by  the  use  of  words.  The 
paintings  and  hieroglyphics  of  savages  are  indeed 
superior  to  the  best  pictorial  illustrations  that  could 
have  been  produced  by  human  beings  wholly  desti- 
tute of  language ;  but  how  far  short  do  the  pictures 
made  by  savages  fall  of  the  paintings  of  a  Raphael,  or 
the^  illustrations  that  accompany  modern  scientific 
works ! 

7.  Word-painting. — Word-painting,  or  the  repre- 
sentation by  language  of  what  may  be  seen  by  the 
eye,  often  produces  a  more  definite  and  vivid  picture 
of  the  object  than  can  be  presented  by  sculpture  or  on 
the  canvas,  because,  in  addition  to  describing  the  mere 
superficial  appearance,  some  words  are  used  which  sug- 
gest the  feelings  and  thoughts  both  of  the  objects  de- 
scribed, if  they  have  any,  and  of  the  observer.  Take, 
for  instance,  the  following  description  of  a  dying  gladi- 
ator, as  described  by  Byron  in  Childe  Harold,  canto  iv. 
stanza  140 : 

'*  I  see  before  me  the  gladiator  lie : 
He  leans  upon  his  hand — his  manly  brow 
Consents  to  death,  but  conquers  agony, 
And  his  drooped  head  sinks  gradually  low — 
And  through  his  side  the  last  drops,  ebbing  slow 
From  the  red  gash,  fall  heavy,  one  by  one, 
Like  the  first  of  a  thunder-shower ;  and  now 
The  arena  swims  around  him — he  is  gone, 
Ere  ceased  the  inhuman  shout  which  hailed  the  wretch  who 


j  \  Rn 

This  beautiful  description  of  a  statue  conveys  more 
thought  than  the  best  executed  specimen  of  sculpture, 
or  even  the  actual  facts  presented  to  our  senses,  unless 
our  own  minds  were  capable  of  originating  the  reflec- 
tions suggested  to  us  by  the  writer. 

8.  Comparative  Power  of  Language  and  tlic  imita- 
tive Arts  in  Description. — An  unprofitable  controversy 
has  arisen  upon  the  question  whether  language,  or 
painting  and  sculpture,  which  are  called  the  "  imita- 
tive arts,"  can  afford  the  most  thorough  and  vivid  de- 
scription of  an  object.  James  Barry,  in  a  lecture  on 
painting,  delivered  before  the  British  Royal  Academy, 
says :  "  The  Medicean  Yen  us,  the  Farnese  Hercules, 
and  the  Fighting  Gladiator  also,  what  is  there  in  po- 
etry (descriptive)  that  could  supply  the  loss  of  them  ?" 
He  adds:  "Words,  after  all,  are  but  words.  They 
are  but  symbols  formed  for  the  eye  out  of  twenty-four 
arbitrary  scratches,  called  letters,  and  certain  vibra- 
tions of  the  air  occasioning  certain  irritations  in  our 
organ  of  hearing,  which  by  national  compacts  are 
made  to  suggest  the  idea  of  existing  things,  with  their 
several  modes  and  degrees  of  relation ;  and  though  the 
communication  of  all  this  matter  of  compact  is  more 
or  less  perfect,  according  to  the  degrees  of  our  educa- 
tion in  it,  yet  how  very  imperfect  it  is,  even  at  the  best, 
will  soon  appear,  on  attempting  to  describe  in  mere 
words  any  individual  complex  forms,  as  the  portrait  or 
likeness  of  any  man's  face,  and  numberless  other  mat- 
ters which  need  not  be  mentioned.  However,  what 
language  wants  in  precision,  is  abundantly  compensa- 
ted in  the  facility  and  extent  of  what  it  does  commu- 


NECESSITY   OF  THOUGHT.  25 

nicatc  in  the  whole  range  of  characters,  manners,  pas- 
sions, sentiments,  and  intercourse  of  society."* 

No  naked  description,  by  words,  of  a  thing  seen, 
can  equal  in  vividness  a  correct  picture,  but  it  may 
contain  much  more  information  than  can  possibly  be 
received  directly  through  the  sense  of  sight 

9.  Relation  of  Language  to  Mental  Culture. — Words 
have  many  shades  and  degrees  of  signification,  varying 
with  the  mental  cultivation  of  those  who  employ  and 
hear  them.  A  well-stored  mind  means  more  by  the 
same  terms  than  an  ignorant  one,  and  receives  more 
meaning  from  the  words  of  others.  The  best  authors 
can  not  be  appreciated  except  by  persons  equally 
learned,  for  the  words  are  clothed  with  associations, 
allusions,  and  suggestions  that  are  wholly  invisible 
to  the  uneducated.  A  production,  written  or  spoken, 
that  conveys  abundant  valuable  thought,  generally 
evinces  thorough  culture. 

Many  animals  can  be  taught  at  least  a  small  part 
of  the  signification  of  several  words  when  addressed 
to  them.  Some  animals  can  be  taught  to  articulate, 
but  never  to  use  language  as  a  vehicle  of  thought 

A  student  may  become  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  art  of  elocution,  and  yet  be  an  inefficient  speaker, 
for  the  want  of  knowledge  and  mental  discipline;  good 
elocutionists,  so  called,  are  often  inefficient  original 
orators,  because  they  have  feeble  or  uncultivated 
minds,  or  scanty  information,  or  little  genuine  feeling ; 
while  writers  that  violate  the  fundamental  principles 

*  Lectures  on  Painnng,  by  the  Royal  Academicians,  Barry,  Opie, 
and  Fuseli  (London,  p.  115). 

B 


26  RHETORIC. 

of  Rhetoric  will  be  read,  and  speakers  that  transgress 
elocution  and  even  grammar  will  be  listened  to,  simply 
from  their  abundance  of  thought  and  power.  One  ac- 
quainted with  the  rules  of  Rhetoric  may  be  incompe- 
tent to  write  a  valuable  essay,  or  even  a  good  letter  to 
a  friend,  for  the  want  of  mental  ability.  Rhetoric  can 
not  supply  the  place  of  intellect  and  heart,  but  only 
shows  how  to  use  both  most  efficiently.  An  able 
speaker  or  writer  needs  thought,  emotion,  and  lan- 
guage. 


ACQUISITION  OF   WORDS.  27 


CHAPTER  III. 

HOW  TO  ACQUIRE  THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WORDS. 

10.  Language  learned  in  Childhood.— THE  first  req- 
uisite of  Rhetoric  is  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  words. 

This  knowledge  is  obtained,  to  a  great  extent,  in 
our  childhood  from  our  parents  and  early  companions. 
We  hear  words  pronounced,  we  mark  their  signifi- 
cance, we  imprint  them  upon  our  minds ;  they  thus 
become  vehicles  of  thought  for  our  own  use.  Who^ 
may  have  uttered  those  words  first  is  of  no  practical 
consequence  to  us.  Some  of  them  may  have  been  used 
by  the  Romans  two  thousand  years  ago,  and  therefore 
be  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Latin,;  others  may 
have  been  used  by  the  Greeks;  others  by  the  Nor- 
mans; others  by  the  modern  French;  others  may 
have  been  always  used  from  the  creation  of  man  till 
now ;  but  whoever  used  them  before  us,  they  are  now 
words  of  our  language,  and  we  learn  their  significance 
and  power  by  hearing  them  pronounced. 

11.  Language  acquired  by  hearing  and  reading. — By 
the  sense  of  hearing  alone  it  is  possible  to  acquire  an 
extensive  and  choice  vocabulary,  and  to  become  ready 
and  expert  in  the  use  of  language.     There  have  been 
many  eloquent  speakers  who  have  thus  acquired  all 
their  knowledge  of  language.    In  past  ages,  and  among 


28  RHETORIC. 

ignorant  people,  undoubtedly  there  have  been  many 
able  orators  who  could  not  write  their  names,  and 
who  could  not  read  the  alphabet.  But  the  most  effi- 
cient aid  of  the  hearing  now  is  the  printed  page. 
Many  obtain  their  knowledge  of  all  but  a  few  common 
words  from  books.  The  words  used  in  good  books 
are  more  choice  and  correct,  and  more  numerous  than 
are  heard  except  from  the  best  speakers. 

12.  The  Number  of  Words  in  Use. — The  number  of 
words  heard  and  understood  by  children  and  youth 
generally  is  small.     As  the  boundaries  and  the  mi- 
nuteness  of  their  investigations  enlarge,  the  number 
of  words  used  must  increase,  to  express  the  new  ob- 
jects and  relations  discovered,  and  the  new  thoughts 
and  emotions  awakened.     Our  knowledge  is  propor- 
tional to  the  number  of  words  that  we  understand, 
each  conveying  a  different  thought ;  and  our  power 
of  producing  thought  and  feeling  in  others  depends 
on  the  number  of  words  that  we  can  properly  and 
promptly  use  in  our  addresses  to  them.     How  can  one 
who  understands  only  a  hundred  words  make  an  elo- 
quent speech  on  a  complicated  subject,  or  write  an  in- 
structive essay  ? 

The  number  of  independent  wprds  in  the  English 
language  is  estimated  to  be  about  forty  thousand; 
though  if  we  counted  only  those  in  ordinary  use  by 
well-educated  speakers  and  writers,'  we  should  find 
not  half  so  many ;  but  if  we  reckon  all  that  have  been 
used  by  writers  within  the  past  two  hundred  years, 
we  should  find  many  more  than  that  number. 

13.  Natural  and  Artificial  Modes  of  learning  Lan- 


METHODS   OF  LEARNING    WORDS.  29 

guage. — There  are  two  methods  of  learning  the  mean- 
ing of  words — the  natural  and  the  artificial. 

The  natural  method  is  to  listen  to  the  words  when 
uttered,  and  to  observe  what  from  their  connection 
and  from  the  appearance  of  the  speaker,  and  from  the 
consequences  that  follow,  must  be  their  meaning,  and 
then  ourselves,  when  occasion  calls,  to  use  the  same 
words. 

The  artificial  method  is  to  study  the  meaning  of 
words  by  the  use  of  lexicons,  grammars,  and  other 
books  that  define  words,  or  to  hear  them  explained 
by  a  teacher. 

Both  methods  must  be  practiced  to  obtain  so  ex- 
tensive a  knowledge  of  words  as  good  scholarship  re- 
quires. Both  may  be  combined  by  reading  books 
written  in  a  good  style,  and  by  never  passing  over  an 
unfamiliar  expression  without  obtaining  a  correct  idea 
of  the  author's  meaning  by  consulting  a  dictionary  or 
some  other  aid. 


30  RHETORIC. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SHORT  AND  EXPRESSIVE  WORDS. 

14.  BY  examining  the  English  language  closely, 
we  observe  that  the  most  of  its  words  are  short,  con- 
sisting of  one  syllable  only  or  two.  The  most  of 
these  short  words  were  used  by  those  early  inhab- 
itants of  England  that  migrated  thither  from  parts  of 
Germany,  and  were  called  Anglo-Saxons,  and  have 
been  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  language.  Near- 
ly all  the  primitive  Anglo-Saxon  words  were  short, 
and  the  longer  words  in  the  language  were  compound 
terms.  Many  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  words  are  no  long- 
er used,  and  many  other  terms  similar  to  them  in  brev- 
ity and  force  have  been  introduced  from  other  sources. 
Indeed  there  seems  to  have  been  a  great  tendency  in 
the  formative  ages  of  the  English  language  to  reduce 
long  words  to  shorter  and  more  easily  remembered 
terms. 

A  large  stock  of  these  short  words  are  understood 
by  nearly  all  who  speak  the  English  language,  and 
are  first  learned  by  children,  and  by  all  who  become 
acquainted  with  the  language  by  actual  use.  The 
most  common  objects  have  short  names.  The  most 
highly  educated  persons,  as  well  as  others,  employ 
them.  Therefore,  if  properly  and  skillfully  used  in 


SHORT    WOlilts.  31 

oratory,  poetry,  or  ordinary  speech,  they  produce  upon 
the  people  their  full  effect.  The  power  to  appreciate 
them  is  -enjoyed  by  all,  while  some  persons  do  not 
fully  understand  some  of  the  longer  and  less  familiar 
terms  in  our  language. 

The  exact  meaning  of  these  condensed  terms  should 
be  carefully  studied,  and  the  laws  of  their  combina- 
tion be  examined,  for  a  mastery  over  them  gives 
great  power  to  a  writer  or  speaker.  The  Anglo-Sax- 
on element  of  our  language  has  not  been  sufficiently 
studied  in  our  schools. 

We  give  a  few  extracts  to  show  the  expressiveness 
of  words  of  this  kind.  The  first  extract  is  a  specimen 
of  excellent  composition,  though  translated  from  an- 
other language,  in  which  it  was  uttered  by  Him  "  who 
spake  as  never  man  spake  " — the  Parable  of  the  Prod- 
igal Son : 

"  A  certain  man  had  two  sons.  And  the  younger  of  them  said 
to  his  father,  Give  me  the  portion  of  goods  that  falleth  to  me.  And 
he  divided  unto  them  his  living.  And  not  many  days  after,  the 
younger  son  gathered  all  together,  and  took  his  journey  into  a  far 
country,  and  there  wasted  his  substance  with  riotous  living.  And 
when  he  had  spent  all,  there  arose  a  mighty  famine  in  that  land ; 
and  he  began  to  be  in  want.  And  he  went  and  joined  himself  to  a 
citizen  of  that  country  ;  and  he  sent  him  into  his  fields  to  feed  swine. 
And  he  would  fain  have  filled  his  belly  with  the  husks  that  the 
swine  did  eat :  and  no  man  gave  unto  him.  And  when  he  came  to 
himself,  he  said,  How  many  hired  servants  of  my  father's  have  bread 
enough  and  to  spare,  and  I  perish  with  hunger !  I  will  arise  and 
go  to  my  father,  and  will  say  unto  him,  Father,  I  have  sinned  against 
heaven,  and  before  thee,  and  am  no  more  worthy  to  be  called  thy 
son  :  make  me  as  one  of  thy  hired  servants.  And  he  arose  and 
came  to  his  father :  But  when  he  was  yet  a  great  way  off,  his  father 
saw  him,  and  had  compassion,  and  ran,  and  fell  on  his  neck  and 


32  RHETORIC. 

kissed  him.  And  the  son  said  unto  him,  Father,  I  have  sinned 
against  heaven,  and  in  thy  sight,  and  am  no  more  worthy  to  be  called 
thy  son.  But  the  father  said  to  his  servants,  Bring  forth  the  best 
robe,  and  put  it  on  him ;  and  put  a  ring  on  his  hand,  and  shoes  on 
his  feet:  and  bring  hither  the  fatted  calf,  and  kill  it ;  and  let  us  eat 
and  be  merry :  For  this  my  son  was  dead,  and  is  alive  again,  he  was 
lost,  and  is  found.  And  they  began  to  be  merry." 

Every  word  in  this  beautiful  story  is  such  as  a  child 
comprehends.  The  whole  number  of  words  in  it  is 
one  hundred  and  forty-one,  all  of  which  but  perhaps 
divided,  citizen,  and  compassion,  may  be  described  as 
short,  familiar  words.  Some  of  the  others  are  indeed 
derived  from  the  Latin,  such  as  portion,  journey,  sub- 
stance, spent,  joined,  perish  ;  but  these  words  have  al- 
most and,  in  some  instances,  quite  supplanted  their 
Anglo-Saxon  equivalents,  and  are  to  the  present  gen- 
eration of  English-speaking  people  as  familiar  as  any 
words  of  Saxon  origin.  It  is  a  characteristic  tendency 
of  the  English  language  to  clip  and  shorten  words 
from  other  languages,  and  reduce  them  to  the  type  of 
simplicity  and  energy  m  which  it  delighta  It  is  not 
necessary  for  the  speaker  to  know  their  origin,  that  he 
may  appreciate  their  force,  any  more  than  it  is  to  know 
the  origin  of  grains  or  fruits  in  order  that  they  may 
nourish  the  body  or  please  the  palate. 

Though  the  above  specimen  of  composition,  the 
Prodigal  Son,  has  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  dif- 
ferent words,  it  repeats  some  of  the  simplest  of  them 
many  times,  so  as  to  have  more  than  three  hundred 
utterances.  And  is  repeated  more  than  thirty  times, 
he,  to,  the,  have,  and  other  such  words,  many  times. 
The  word  living  is  used  in  two  different  significations 


MONOtiYLLABICS.  33 

—"And  he  divided  unto  them  his  living"  meaning 
his  property.  And  "wasted  his  substance  with  riot- 
ous living"  or  manner  of  life.  Careful  writers  avoid 
the  use  of  words  in  different  meanings  in  the  same  sen- 
tences, or  so  near  to  each  other  as  to  lead  to  confusion 
of  thought* 

The  following  poem,  written  by  Professor  J.  Addi- 
son  Alexander,  D.D.,  shows  how  much  meaning  may 
be  conveyed  by  the  skillful  use  of  monosyllabic  words 
alone: 

"MONOSYLLABICS. 

"Think  not  that  strength  lies  in  the  big  round  word, 

Or  that  the  brief  and  plain  must  needs  be  weak. 
To  whom  can  this  be  true  who  once  has  heard 

The  cry  for  help,  the  tongue  that  all  men  speak, 
When  want,  or  woe,  or  fear  is  in  the  throat, 

So  that  each  word  gasped  out  is  like  a  shriek 
Pressed  from  the  sore  heart,  or  a  strange,  wild  note, 

Sung  by  some  fay  or  fiend?     There  is  a  strength 
Which  dies,  if  stretched  too  far  or  spun  too  fine, 

Which  has  more  weight  than  breadth,  more  depth  than  length. 
Let  but  this  force  of  thought  and  speech  be  mine, 

And  he  that  will  may  take  the  sleek  fat  phrase, 
Which  glows  and  burns  not,  though  it  gleam  and  shine — 

Light,  but  no  heat — a  flash,  but  not  a  blaze  ! 

*  It  may  be  interesting  to  note  that,  while  in  the  English  of  the 
Prodigal  Son  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  different  words  are  employ- 
ed, the  original  Greek  makes  use  of  less  than  one  hundred ;  and 
while  in  English  there  are  more  than  three  hundred  utterances,  ^n 
the  Greek  there  are  less  than  two  hundred  and  fifty,  and  yet  both 
cover  about  the  same  space,  or  require  the  same  time  for  repetition. 
This  illustrates  the  fact  that  in  English  shorter  words  are  used  and 
more  frequently  repeated,  while  the  Greek  varies  and  compounds  its 
original  words  more. 

B2 


:U  RHETORIC. 

"Nor  is  it  mere  strength  that  the  short  word  boasts ; 

It  serves  of  more  than  fight  or  storm  to  tell, 
The  roar  of  waves  that  clash  on  rock-bound  coasts, 

The  crash  of  tall  trees  when  the  wild  winds  swell, 
The  roar  of  guns,  the  groans  of  men  that  die 

On  blood-stained  fields.     It  has  a  voice  as  well 
For  them  that  far  off  on  their  sick  beds  lie : 

For  them  that  weep,  for  them  that  mourn  the  dead  ; 
For  them  that  laugh  and  dance,  and  clap  the  hand ; 

To  joy's  quick  step,  as  well  as  griefs  slow  tread, 
The  sweet  plain  words  we  learnt  at  first  keep  time ; 

And  though  the  theme  be  sad,  or  gay,  or  grand, 
With  each,  with  all,  these  may  be  made  to  chime, 

In  thought,  or  speech,  or  song,  or  prose,  or  rhyme." 

In  the  above  remarkable  production,  consisting  of 
two  hundred  and  eighty  syllables,  each  being  a  word, 
one  hundred  and  sixty-six  different  words  are  employ- 
ed, the  most  of  them  occurring  only  once.  This  serves 
to  show  the  great  power  of  the  monosyllabic  part  of 
our  language. 

It  does  not  at  all  detract  from  the  force  of  the 
composition  that,  while,  nearly  all  of  the  words  are  of 
Anglo-Saxon,  or  at  least  Teutonic  origin,  some  arc 
Celtic,  and  some  are  Latin,  and  some  Greek.  A  child 
never  asks  the  origin  of  a  word  that  he  hears;  but 
if  it  is  short,  and  expresses  a  thought  of  frequent  oc- 
currence, it  is  easily  remembered.  Brief,  round,  press, 
strange,  force,  mere,  serves,  stain,  voice,  chime,  prose,  are 
from  the  Latin,  phrase  and  theme  are  from  the  Greek ; 
but  they  are  as  forcible  as  strength,  help,  speak,  and  the 
others  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin. 

Many  of  the  most  highly  esteemed  writers  of  tl  e 
English  language  employ  mostly  short,  simple,  and  ex- 


FORCE    OF  SHORT    WORDS.  35 

pressive  words.     We  give  another  brief  specimen  to 
illustrate  the  power  of  words  of  this  kind. 

EXTRACT  FROM  AN  ADDRESS  15Y  DANII.L  WEBSTER  TO  SOME  AGED 
SOLDIERS  OF  THE  REVOLUTION. 

"  Venerable  men !  You  have  come-down  to  us  from  a  former 
generation.  Heaven  has  bounteously  lengthened  out  your  lives  that 
you  might  behold  this  joyous  day.  You  are  now  where  you  stood 
fifty  years  ago,  this  very  hour,  with  your  brothers  and  your  neigh- 
bors, shoulder  to  shoulder,  in  the  strife  for  your  country.  Behold, 
how  altered  !  The  same  heavens  arc  indeed  over  your  heads  ;  the 
same  ocean  rolls  at  your  feet ;  but  nil  else,  how  changed !" 

The  simplicity  and  appropriateness  of  the  language 
of  this  address  will  be  appreciated  and  admired  by  all 
persons  of  good  taste. 

Without  caricaturing  the  opposite  kind  of  style, 
we  will  translate  the  above  into  language  such  as 
many  more  pompous  but  feeble  speakers  would  have 
employed,  in  order  that  the  superior  merits  of  the 
simple  style,  at  least  for  such  an  occasion  as  called 
forth  the  above,  may  be  observed. 

"Venerable  gentlemen  !  You  have  descended  to  ns  from  an  an- 
tecedent generation.  Heaven  has  bounteously  prolonged  your  ca- 
reer, that  your  vision  might  embrace  this  exultant  epoch.  You  are 
now  where  you  stood  half  a  century  ago,  at  this  very  instant,  with 
your  fraternal  associates  and  intimate  acquaintances,  shoulder  to 
shoulder,  in  the  contest  for  your  nation.  Behold,  how  transformed  ! 
The  same  firmament  is  indeed  over  your  heads ;  the  same  ocean 
rolls  at  your  feet ;  but  all  other  things,  how  transformed  !" 

The  weakness  and  flatness  of  these  long  words, 
compared  with  the  nervous  original,  none  can  fail  to 
see. 

15.  Abundant  Thought  requisite  to  render  a  simple 
Style  agreeable. — ^.t  the  same  time  it  should  not  be  for- 
gotten that  one  quality  is  essential  to  a  style  ia  which 

„     £/c^.i,f«c 


36  RHETORIC. 

these  short  and  familiar  words  abound,  to  make  the 
production  impressive  and  valuable,  and  that  is,  abun- 
dance of  thought  and  feeling,  or  both.  Without  this, 
the  production  is  not  only  uninteresting  but  puerile. 
It  is  only  writers  who  abound  in  thought  that  can 
safely  employ  a  simple  style. 

16.  Scientific  Productions  in  Popular  Language. — 
Scientific  productions  usually  employ  technical  terms, 
but  many  of  late  have  been  written  in  popular  lan- 
guage. Professor  Agassiz,  though  his  native  lan- 
guage is  French,  employs  a  style  in  English,  that  may 
be  regarded  as  a  model  of  simplicity,  perspicuity,  and 
force.  We  give  a  brief  specimen : 

"  Before  the  year  1800,  men  had  never  suspected  that  their  home 
had  been  tenanted  in  past  times  by  a  set  of  beings  totally  different' 
from  those  that  inhabit  it  now ;  still  farther  was  it  from  their  thought 
to  imagine  that  creation  after  creation  had  followed  each  other  in 
successive  ages,  every  one  stamped  with  a  character  peculiarly  its 
own.  It  was  Cuvier  who,  aroused  to  new  labors  by  the  hint  he  re- 
ceived from  Montmartre,  to  which  all  his  vast  knowledge  of  living 
animals  gave  him  no  clue,  established,  by  means  of  most  laborious  in- 
vestigations, the  astounding  conclusion  that,  prior  to  the  existence 
of  the  animals  and  plants  now  living,  this  globe  had  been  the  theatre 
of  another  set  of  beings,  every  trace  of  whom  had  vanished  from  the 
surface  of  the  earth.  *  *  *  The  solid  crust  of  the  earth  gave  up 
its  dead,  and  from  the  snows  of  Siberia,  from  the  soil  of  Italy,  from 
caves  of  Central  Europe,  from  mines,  from  the  rent  sides  of  mount- 
ains and  from  their  highest  peaks,  from  the  coral-beds  of  ancient 
oceans,  the  varied  animals  that  had  possessed  the  earth  ages  before 
man  was  created  spoke  to  us  of  the  past." 

The  basis  of  the  above  style  consists  of  plain  and 
purely  English  words,  while  those  of  later  origin,  and 
derived  from  the  Latin  and  other  languages,  are  spar- 
ingly used,  when  precision  and  elegance  seem  to  re- 
quire them. 


OUIGIN   OF   THE  LONGER    WORDS.  37 


CHAPTER  Y. 

LONG  WORDS,  AND  DIRECTIONS  UPON  THE  CHOICE 
OF  WORDS. 

17.  BESIDES  the  shorter  and,  on  the  average,  most 
expressive  words,  there  are  many  longer  ones  which 
ha,ve  been  introduced  from  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  oth- 
er languages.  These  constitute  about  one-fourth  of 
the  terms  found  in  English  dictionaries,  but  very  sel- 
dom reach  so  high  a  proportion  in  the  language  of 
any  author.  Some  of  them  are  the  only  single  terms 
in  the  language  to  express  the  thoughts  for  which  they 
stand,  and  therefore  must  be  used  when  those  thoughts 
are  to  be  expressed;  others  bear  nearly  the  same 
meaning  as  older  and  shorter  words,  but  are  generally 
esteemed  as  more  elegant  or  sonorous,  or  indicative  of 
higher  culture,  and  are  therefore  often  preferred. 

The  earlier  writers  of  the  English  language,  when 
it  had  fairly  supplanted  the  Anglo-Saxon  language, 
were  for  the  most  part  familiar  with  the  Latin,  and  in- 
troduced into  their  written  compositions  many  words 
that  the  people  had  not  been  accustomed  to  hear. 
The  words  were  mostly  English  in  form,  Latin  in 
fact.  It  was  positively  necessary  either  that  they 
should  introduce  such  words,  or  that  they  should  com- 
bine the  familiar  Anglo-Saxon  words  into  new  com- 


38  RHETORIC. 

pound  terms,  for  new  ideas  were  awakened  which  the- 
old  simple  words  would  not  express.    Many  compound 
words  were  formed,  and  many  were  transferred  to  our 
language  from  the  Latin,  and  subsequently  from  the 
Greek,  and  from  other  languages. 

Both  as  a  description,  and,  to  some  extent  an  illus- 
tration, of  this  practice,  the  following  extract  from  a 
work  of  Lord  Bacon  is  given,  entitled  "  The  Proficience 
and  Advancement  of  Learning,"  published  first  in 
1605: 

"  Thereof  grew  again  a  delight  in  this  manner  of  stylo  and  phrase, 
and  an  admiration  of  that  kind  of  writing  which  was  much  furthered 
and  precipitated  by  the  enmity  and  opposition  that  the  propounders 
of  those  primitive,  but  seeming  new  opinions,  had  against  the  school- 
men, who  were  generally  of  the  contrary  part,  and  whose  writings 
were  altogether  in  a  different  style  and  form,  taking  liberty  to  coin 
and  frame  new  terms  of  art  to  express  their  own  sense,  and  to  avoid 
circuit  of  speech,  without  regard  to  the  pureness,  pleasantness,  and, 
as  J  may  call  it,  lawfulness,  of  the  phrase  or  word.  And  again,  be- 
•'ie  great  labor  then  was  with  the  people,  for  the  winning  and 
persuading  of  them,  there  grew  of  necessity,  in  chief  price  and  request, 
eloquence  and  variety  of  discourse,  as  the  fittest  and  forciblest  access 
into  the  capacity  of  the  vulgar  sort;  so  that  these  four  causes  con- 
curring, the  admiration  of  ancient  authors,  the  hate  of  the  school-men, 
the  exact  study  of  languages,  and  the  efficacy  of  preaching,  did  bring 
in  an  affected  study  of  eloquence  and  copia  of  speech  which  then  be- 
gun to  flourish." 

Afterward,  on  this  same  subject,  Bacon  adds: 

<:  How  is  it  possible  but  this  should  have  an  operation  to  discredit 
learning,  even  with  vulgar  capacities,  when  they  see  learned  men's 
works,  like  the  first  letter  of  a  patent  or  limned  book,  which,  though 
it  hath  large  flourishes,  yet  it  is  but  a  letter  ?  It  seems  to  me  that 
Pygmalion's  frenzy*  is  a  good  emblem  or  portraiture  of  their  variety  ; 

*  Pygmalion,  a  character  described  in  Grecian  story,  who  is  said 
to  have  made  a  statue  and  fallen  in  love  with  it  after  it  was  endowed 
with  life. 


THE  JOHNSONIAN  STYLE.  39 

for  words  arc  but  the  images  of  matter ;  and  except  they  have  life  of 
reason  and  invention,  to  fall  in  love  with  them  is  all  one  as  to  full 
in  love  with  a  picture." 

"Writings  in  which  long  and  sonorous  terms  abound 
are  sometimes  said  to  be  in  the  "Johnsonian  style," 
from  the  character  of  the  productions  of  Samuel  John- 
son, LL.D.,  the  author  of  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  English 
Language,"  whose  vocabulary  was  extensive,  and  ef- 
fectively employed.  The  following  sentence  illus- 
trates his  style : 

"  That  affluence  and  power,  advantages  extrinsic  and  adventitious, 
and,  therefore,  easily  separable  from  those  by  whom  they  are  pos- 
sessed, should  very  often  flatter  the  mind  with  expectations  of  felicity 
which  they  can  not  give,  raises  no  astonishment;  butit  seems  ration- 
al to  hope  that  intellectual  greatness  should  produce  better  effects  ; 
that  minds  qualified  for  great  attainments  should  first  endeavor  to 
secure  their  own  benefit ;  and  that  they  who  are  most  able  to  teach 
others  the  way  to  happiness  should,  with  most  certainty,  follow  it 
themselves." 

Mr.  Macaulay,  criticising  Johnson's  style,  says: 
"  When  he  talked,  he  clothed  his  wit  and  his  sense  in 
forcible  and  natural  expressions.  As  soon  as  betook 
his  pen  in  hand  to  write  for  the  public,  his  style  be- 
came systematically  vicious.  All  his  books  are  written 
in  a  learned  language — in  a  language  which  nobody 
hears  from  his  mother  or  his  nurse— in  a  language  in 
which  nobody  ever  quarrels,  or  drives  bargains,  or 
makes  love  —  in  a  language  in  which  nobody  ever 
thinks.  It  is  clear  that  Johnson  himself  did  not 
think  in  the  dialect  in  which  he  wrote.  *  *  * 
.  "  His  constant  practice  of  padding  out  a  sentence 
with  useless  epithets  till  it  became  as  stiff  as  the  bust 
of  an  exquisite;  his  antithetical  forms  of  expression 


40  RHETORIC. 

constantly  employed  even  where  there  is  no  apposi- 
tion in  the  things  expressed ;  his  big  words  wasted  on 
little  things ;  his  harsh  inversions,  so  widely  different 
from  those  graceful  and  easy  inversions  which  give 
variety,  spirit,  and  sweetness  to  the  expression  of  our 
great  old  writers — all  these  peculiarities  have  been 
imitated  by  his  admirers  and  parodied  by  his  assail- 
ants till  the  public  has  become  sick  of  the  subject."* 

His  definition  of  "net-work"  in  his  dictionary  il-~ 
lustrates  this  style  as  follows :  "  Any  thing  reticulated 
or  decussated  with  interstices  at  equal  distances  be- 
tween the  intersections." 

18.  When  the  Johnsonian  Style  is  allowable. — "When 
the  thought  is  valuable  and  impressive,  the  use  of 
ponderous  and  majestic  words  is  eminently  appropri- 
ate.    The  advantages  of  learning  are  now  so  widely 
disseminated  that  a  much  larger  proportion  of  the 
public  appreciate  such  language.      Certain  minute 
shades  of  thought  may  be  expressed  by  it  alone,  and 
there  are  occasions  when  good  taste  pronounces  it  ap- 
propriate and  indispensable.     Therefore  all  scholars 
should  obtain  a  mastery  over  it. 

19.  A  Variety  in  tfiis  Matter  to  be  cultivated. — The 
best  writers  employ  a  great  variety  of  words,  not  con- 
fining themselves  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  or  to  the  Latin- 
ized style.      Much  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the 
subject,  the  character  of  the  audience  addressed,  and 
the  purpose  of  the  author,  whether  to  instruct,  con- 
vince, or  amuse.     The  most  forcible  expressions  in 

*  Macaulay's  Miscellaneous  Writings :  article,  "  Boswell's  Life  of 
Johnson." 


MACY  AND   IDIOMATIC  EXPRESSIONS.        41 

the  language  are  short  and  direct;  longer  words  are 
often  more  harmonious  and  elegant. 

Upon  the  propriety  of  using  words  derived  from  the 
Latin  and  Greek,  a  great  difference  of  opinion  is  en- 
tertained. A  modern  writer  of  some  notoriety  has 
said : 

"  Our  great  scholars  have  corrupted  the  English 
language  by  a  jargon  so  uncouth  that  a  plain  man  can 
hardly  discern  the  real  lack  of  ideas  which  their  bar- 
barous and  mottled  dialect  strives  to  hide.  *  *  *  There 
can  be  but  little  doubt  that  the  principal  reason  why 
well-educated  women  write  and  converse  in  a  purer 
style  than  well-educated  men  is  because  they  have 
not  formed  their  taste  according  to  those  aflcient 
classical  standards,  which,  admirable  as  they  are  in 
themselves,  should  never  be  introduced  into  a  state 
of  society  unfitted  for  them.  To  this  may  be  added 
that  Cobbett,  the  most  racy  and  idiomatic  of  all  our 
writers,  Erskine,  by  far  the  greatest  of  our  forensic  ora- 
tors, knew  little'or  nothing  of  any  ancient  language, 
and  the  same  observation  applies  to  Shakspeare."* 

The  style  of  Erskine  was  also  complimented  by 
the  famous  orator,  Eufus  Choate,  who  in  conversa- 
tion said  :  "  Erskine  got  along  not  by  wide  scope  and 
reach  of  rich  allusion  and  thought,  but  by  a  beautiful 
voice,  emotional  temperament,  and  the  richest  English, 
taken  from  Shakspeare  and  Milton."f 

The  following  extract  from  a  speech  of  Mr.  Ersldne 

*  History  of  Civilization  in  England.  By  Henry  Thomas  Buckle 
(London,  1857,  vol.  i.  p.  744). 

t  Reminiscences  of  Rufus  Choate,  the  Great  American  Advocate. 
By  Edward  G.  Parker  (Boston,  1860,  p.  2G3). 


42  JIHETt.UH' 

is  a  good  specimen  of  his  style,  and  shows  that  he  was 
not  by  any  means  limited  to  common  and  colloquial 
terms : 

"Gentlemen,  I  can  not  conclude  without  expressing  the  deepest 
regret  at  all  attacks  upon  the  Christian  religion  by  authors  who  pro- 
fess to  promote  the  civil  liberties  of  the  world.  For  under  what 
other  auspices  than  Christianity  have  the  lost  and  subverted  liber- 
tics  of  mankind  in  former  ages  been  reasserted  ?  Under  what  other 
sanctions,  even  in  our  own  days,  have  liberty  and  happiness  been 
spreading  to  the  uttermost  corners  of  the  earth?  What  work  of 
civilization,  what  commonwealth  of  greatness  has  this  bald  religion 
\  of  nature  ever  established  ?" 

Careful  study  will  show  that  the  compliments  upon 
the  style  of  Erskine  are  extravagant.  His  words  were 
few,  and  not  the  best  chosen,  and  a  wider  range  of 

idy,  though  he  was  evidently  familiar  with  Latin, 
would  have  much  improved  both  his  thoughts  and 
style. 

Dr.  Johnson  himself  gave  perhaps  the  best  defense 
of  his  own  style  that  can  be  given,  though  in  his  earn- 
estness he  seems  to  have  deviated  from  it,  when  he 
said,  "  Big  thinkers  require  big  words."* 

Those  who  recommend  the  exclusive  employment 
of  either  the  simpler  or  the  more  complex  words  of  our 
rich  English  language,  both  err.  The  short  simple 
words  undoubtedly  make  the  deepest  impression, 
while  the  longer  words  contribute  to  copiousness,  ele- 
gance, and  accuracy.  The  student  should  obtain  a 
mastery  over  both. 

Of  the  Johnsonian  style,  Dr.  Whately  says :  "  It 

*  See  Lord  Brougham's  Rhetorical  Dissertations  (London  Edi- 
tion, 1856,  p.  206). 

/£• 


WHATELY'S    VR1T1CI&M   OF  JOHNSON.         43 

happens,  unfortunately,  that  Johnson's  style  is  particu- 
larly easy  of  imitation,  even  by  writers  utterly  desti- 
tute of  his  vigor  of  thought ;  and  such  imitators  are 
intolerable.  They  bear  the  same  resemblance  to  their 
model  that  the  armor  of  the  Chinese,  as  described  by 
travellers,  consisting  of  thick  quilted  cotton  covered 
with  stiff  glazed  paper,  does  to  that  of  the  ancient 
knights :  equally  glittering  and  bulky,  but  destitute 
of  the  temper  and  firmness  which  was  its  sole  advan- 
tage. At  first  sight,  indeed,  this  kind  of  style  appears 
far  from  easy  of  attainment,  on  account  of  its  being  re- 
mote from  the  colloquial,  and  having  an  elaborately 
artificial  appearance ;  but  in  reality  there  is  none  less 
difficult  to  acquire.  To  string  together  sMbstaiitiri* 
connected  by  conjunctions,  which  is  the  characteristic 
of  Johnson's  style,  is,  in  fact,  the  rudest  and  clumsiest 
mode  of  expressing  our  thoughts:  we  have  only  to 
find  names  for  our  ideas,  and  th*  put  them  together 
by  connectives,  instead  of  interweaving,  or  rather  felt- 
ing them  together,  by  the  admixture  of  verbs,  partici- 
ples, prepositions,  etc.  So  that  this  way  of  writing,  as 
contrasted  with  the  other,  may  be  likened  to  the  prim- 
itive rude  carpentry,  in  which  the  materials  were 
united  by  coarse  external  implements,  pins,  nails,  and 
cramps,  when  compared  with  that  art  in  its  most  im- 
proved state,  after  the  invention  of  dove-tail  joints, 
grooves,  and  mortises,  when  the  junctions  are  effected 
by  forming  properly  the  extremities  of  the  pieces  to 
be  joined,  so  as  at  once  to  consolidate  and  conceal  the 
juncture."* 

*  Whately's  Rhetoric,  part  iii.  chap.  ii.  §  8. 


44  RHETORIC. 

On  this  subject  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  remarks: 
"  In  Parliament,  in  pulpits,  in  theatres,  when  the 
speakers  rise  to  thought  and  passion,  the  language  be- 
comes idiomatic ;  the  people  in  the  street  best  under- 
stand the  best  words."* 

*  Emerson's  English  Traits,  p.  104. 


REMEMBRANCE    OF    WORDS.  45 


CHAPTER  VI. 

HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A  GOOD  VOCABULARY. 

20.  Degrees  of  Memory  in  Relation  to  Language. — 
THERE  is  a  great  difference  between  such  a  knowl- 
edge of  a  word  as  enables  a  person  to  understand  its 
meaning  when  it  is  either  heard  or  read,  and  such  a 
mastery  over  it  as  enables  the  person  to  command  it 
either  in  speech  or  rapid  writing.     Many  persons  can 
understand  the  most  of  what  is  uttered  to  them  in 
familiar  conversation  in  a  foreign  language  who  can 
not  express  themselves  readily  and  correctly  in  that 
language.     Thousands  of  scholars  can  read  foreign 
languages  who  could  not  write  a  page  of  them  accu- 
rately.    A  speaker  who  uses  many  and  elegant  words 
will  often  interest  and  delight  an  auditory  of  unedu- 
cated persons,  not  one  of  whom  could  use  the  words 
which  he  hears  and  understands,  and  some  of  which 
perhaps  he  never  heard  before. 

21.  Analysis  of  Memory. — The  faculty  of  memory, 
when  analyzed,  is  found  to  embrace  acquisition,  re^ 
tention,  and  repiodliciien.     First,  the  knowledge  must 
be  acquired ;  second,  it  must  be  retained,  and,  finally, 
it  must  be  reproduced  when  needed. 

Each  of  these  departments  of  the  memory  can  be 
strengthened  only  by  attention  and  exercise.     Each 


46  RHETORIC. 

particular  department  must  be  specially  exercised. 
The  acquisition  of  words  can  be  secured  by  a  study  of 
dictionaries,  by  accurately  observing  every  new  term 
that  is  heard  or  seen,  and  particularly  by  translating 
from  one  language  into  another.  It  should  be  heeded 
by  the  student  that  a  familiarity  with  words  can  not 
be  secured  accidentally,  any  more  than  any  other  val- 
uable power. 

In  like  manner  words,  once  comprehended  and 
stored  in  the  memory,  must  be  employed  frequently,  or 
they  will  not  be  ready  to  do  the  bidding  of  their  mas- 
ter when  needed.  The  frequent  and  careful  use  of 
the  pen  is  a  great  aid  to  the  memory.  The  oft-quoted 
apothegm  of  Bacon  should  be  regarded :  "  Beading 
maketh  a  full  man,  conference  [conversation  or  use] 
a  ready  man,  and  writing  an  exact  man." 

22.  Advice  of  Bacon. — The  following  advice  of  this 
illustrious  author,  though  comprehending  more  than 
directly  applies  to  the  present  subject,  is  all  pertinent 
to  a  study  of  Rhetoric : 

"  If  a  man  write  little,  he  had  need  have  a  great  memory ;  if  he 
confer  little,  he  had  need  have  a  present  wit ;  and  if  he  read  little, 
he  had  need  have  much  cunning,  to  seem  to  know  that  he  doth  not. 
Histories  make  men  wise;  poets,  witty;  the  mathematics,  subtile; 
natural  philosophy,  deep,  moral,  grave  ;  logic  and  rhetoric,  able 
to  contend." 

In  the  above  extract,  the  careful  reader  will  note 
that  several  words  are  used  with  a  signification  that 
is  now  either  obsolete  or  not  common.  They  are, 
"  had  need  have  "  for  needs  to  have,  "confer  "  for  converse, 
for  skill,  "that"  for  tfiat  which  or  what. 


COMMAND    OF  A   VOCABULARY.  47 

This  illustrates  the  changes  in  the  meaning  and  use 
of  words  gradually  introduced  into  the  language. 

23.  Further  Advice  on  Cultivating  a  Remembrance 
of  Words. — To  obtain  a  knowledge  of  words  and  a  fa- 
cility in  their  employment,  it  is  a  commendable  prac- 
tice never  to  pass  over  a  word  in  reading  without  a 
thorough  perception  of  its  meaning,  and  to  employ  in 
speaking  or  writing  as  great  a  variety  of  choice  and 
appropriate  terms  as  can  be  commanded,  provided 
that  none  are  .used  superfluously.  Also,  while  it  is 
profitable  to  study  carefully  other  languages,  no  per- 
son should  presume  to  consider  himself  well  educated, 
without  having  spent  much  time,  not  only  in  the 
study  of  the  grammar,  but  in  the  special  and  severe 
study  of  the  words  of  his  own  language. 

2-i.  Advice  of  Choate  on  Choice  of  Words.  —  Mr. 
Choate,  whose  opinion  on  the  style  of  Erskine  has 
already  been  quoted,  was  himself  the  master  of  a 
rich,  copious,  and  highly  -  ornamented  style,  which 
could  not  have  been  acquired  without  the  patient 
study  of  words.  His  opinion  on  this  subject  is  wor- 
thy of  notice : 

"  The  culture  of  expression  should  be  a  specific  study,  quite  distinct 
from  the  invention  of  thought.  Language  and  its  elements,  words, 
are  to  be  mastered  by  direct,  earnest  labor.  A  speaker  ought  daily 
to  exercise  and  air  his  vocabulary,  and  also  to  add  to  and  enrich  it. 
Translations  should  be  pursued  with  these  tico  objects,  to  bring  up 
to  the  mind  and  employ  all  the  words  you  already  own,  and  to  tax 
and  torment  invention  and  discovery,  and  the  very  deepest  memory, 
for  additional,  rich,  and  admirably-expressive  words.  In  translat- 
ing, the  student  should  not  put  down  a  word  till  he  has  thought  of 
at  least  six  synonyms,  or  varieties  of  expression,  for  the  idea.  Dic- 
tionaries are  of  great  service  in  this  filling  up  and  fertilizing  of  die- 


48  RHETORIC. 

tion.  You  do  not  want  a  diction  gathered  from  the  newspapers, 
caught  from  the  air,  common  and  unsuggestive  ;  but  you  want  one 
whose  even-  word  is  full  freighted  with  suggestions  and  associations, 
with  beauty  and  power."* 

The  last  suggestion  will  be  felt  by  every  good 
student.  A  stream  can  not  rise  higher  than  the 
fountain.  Those  who  read  only  inferior  productions, 
and  listen  only  to  poorly-educated  speakers,  will  im- 
bibe their  imperfect  styla  Every  student  should 
read  the  books  of  classic  reputation  in  his  own  lan- 
guage, and  laboriously  and  discriminatingly  select  words 
when  attempting  to  express  his  own  thoughts. 

The  young  writer  should  devote  time  and  study 
to  the  art  of  composition,  and  should  write  and  re- 
write his  productions  carefully,  and  read  and  repeat 
them  frequently,  to  acquire  correctness,  copiousness, 
and  readiness  in  expression. 

*  Reminiscences  of  Rafus  Choate,  pp.  248,  249. 


SYNONYMOUS    WORDS.  49 


CHAPTER  VII. 

DISCRIMINATION   IN  THE   USE  OF  WORDS. 

25.  Synonymous  Words. — THE  English  language  is 
remarkably  rich  in  words.     As  it  readily  receives  and 
assimilates  terms  from  any  other  language  with  which 
it  comes  in  contact,  it  employs  many  w,ords  that  have 
nearly  the  same  signification.      Words  having  pre- 
cisely the  same  signification  are  called  synonymous 
words,  and  the  term  is  sometimes  extended  so  as  to 
embrace  words  that  differ  but  slightly  in  meaning. 
Su:ijtness  and  velocity,  brotherly  and  fraternal,  yearly 
and  annual,  stay  and  continue,  abide  and  remain,  hi/if 
and  suggest,  wave  and  billow,  are  specimens  of  words 
that  so  closely  resemble  each  other  in  signification  as 
to  be  called  synonymous.    Inferior  and  careless  speak- 
ers recognize  no  distinction  in  the  meaning  of  such 
words.     If  we  consult  our  dictionaries,  we  find  that  a 
large  majority  of  the  words  in  the  language  are  de- 
fined or  explained  simply  by  the  use  of  other  single 
words  that  are  supppsed  to  bear  a  meaning  nearly 
identical  with  the  words  defined. 

26.  Slight  Diversity  in  the  Meaning  of  /Synonymous 
Wards.  —  Careful  scrutiny  will  show  that  in  all  in- 
stances these  words  really  differ  in  meaning,  though 
sometimes  by  a  slight  shade,  imperceptible  to  an  un- 
educated mind.     As  the  musical  ear  is  trained  to  dis- 

C 


50  .      RHETORIC. 

criminate  between  similar  sounds,  and  the  eye  of  a 
painter  to  distinguish  similar  colors,  so  an  educated 
mind  will  recognize  a  difference  in  the  rank  or  com- 
prehensiveness of  words  called  synonymous.  Correct 
and  elegant  writers  and  speakers  recognize  and  ob- 
serve these  facts,  and  even  ignorant  readers  are 
charmed  by  this  discrimination  and  accuracy,  though 
they  know  not  the  origin  of  their  pleasure,  and  can 
not  themselves  command  such  power. 

Swiftness,  for  instance,  is  a  pure  English  word,  com- 
ing down  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  and  universally  un- 
derstood. It  is  the  exact  opposite  of  slowness.  Ve- 
locity is  from  the  Latin,  and  is  more  elegant,  but  less 
forcible,  and  may  even  apply  to  objects  moving  slow- 
ly. "VVe  may  say  "  a  slow  velocity,"  but  not  "  a  slow 
swiftness."  And  yet  velocity  is  used  to  denote  the 
very  greatest  degree  of  swiftness  ever  exhibited,  as 
when  we  speak'of  the  velocity  of  a  cannon-ball,  or  of 
lightning,  or  of  the  celestial  bodies ;  velocity  is  there- 
fore much  more  comprehensive  than  swiftness.  Such 
facts  can  be  learned  only  by  very  careful  and  discrim- 
inating reading,  which  is  aided  by  a  study  of  other 
languages,  ancient  and  modern  ;  but  a  close  atten- 
tion to  the  practice  of  the  most  approved  authors  in 
our  own  language  will  largely  ^  supply  the  want  of 
acquaintance  with  the  Anglo-Saxon,  Latin,  Greek, 
and  other  languages  from  which  the  English  is  de- 
rived. Brotherly  and  fraternal  are  almost  exactly  the 
same,  the  former  being  Anglo-Saxon,  and  the  latter 
Latin.  If  they  differ  at  all,  it  is  in  the  slightly  supe- 
rior definiteness  and  force  of  the  former.  Horse  and 


TECHNICAL    TERMS.  51 

steed  differ  in  rank.  Horse  is  the  common  word,  steed 
is  the  poetical  word.  Nay  means  an  inferior  horse,  or 
one  spoken  of  familiarly,  as  of  little  esteem. 

It  is  a  profitable  exercise  to  scrutinize  words  closely, 
and  to  note  the  different  effect  of  a  sentence  if  a  few 
words  are  exchanged  for  others  of  a  similar  meaning. 

27.  Technical   Terms. —  Many   technical    terms,  or 
words  used  in  a  very  precise  sense,  in  the  description 
of  the  sciences  and  arts,  have  been  introduced  into  the 
English  language,  mainly  from  the  ancient  languages. 
In  this  way  our  speech  has  been  greatly  enriched. 
No  science  or  art  can  be  studied,  or  even  thoroughly 
understood,  without  a  knowledge  of  its  technical  terms. 
The  common  English  words  nearest  in  signification  to 
them  are  too  elastic  and  changeable  in  their  significa- 
tion to  answer  the  purpose  of  those  who  are  describing 
the  arts  and  sciences. 

Thus,  Grammar  has  such  technical  terms  as  parti- 
ciple, prosody,  subject,  predicate;  Geography  such  as  lat- 
itude,, longitude ;  Astronomy  such  as  nodes,  parallax, 
transit;  Geology  such  as  Silurian,  carbonaceous,  drift ; 
Metaphysics  such  as  subjective,  objective,  nominalism,  re- 
alism;  Medicine,  Law,  Theology,  Teaching,  Painting, 
Sculpture,  Navigation,  War,  Building,  Mining,  and  all 
sciences  and  all  practices,  make  use  of  a  certain  set  of 
terms  respectively,  employed  in  a  definite  signification, 
and  which,  when  used  on  other  subjects,  have  general- 
ly a  wider  or  looser  signification  than  when  employed 
technically. 

28.  Origin  of  Technical  Terms. — While  the  technical 
terms  of  the  natural  sciences  are  mostly  taken  from 


52  RHETORIC. 

the  Greek,  those  of  war  are  derived  largely  from  the 
French,  those  of  music  from  the  Italian,  and  many  oth- 
ers are  from  other  languages,  ancient  and  modern.  In 
some  instances,  an  English  word  is  selected  and  close- 
ly defined  in  a  treatise,  and  thus  becomes  technical. 

29.  How  used. — No  one  should  presume  to  write 
upon  any  particular  science  or  art  without  an  accurate. 
knowledge  of  its  technical  terms ;  and  it  is  well  even 
in  unscientific  or  popular  productions  to  use  such 
terms  accurately,  if  at  all.     An  excessive  or  unneces- 
sary use  of~them,  even  in  scientific  writings,  and  still 
more  so  in  those  designed  for  general  readers,  appears 
pedantic,  and  should  be  avoided. 

30.  New   Words. — From  time  to  time  new  words 
sprirjg  up  in  the  language,  and  old  words  die  out  or 
become  obsolete.     The  scrutinizing  observations  of 
modern  science  are  constantly  discovering  new  objects, 
which  must  be  named,  and  therefore  scientific  terms 
are  constantly  added  to  the  language.     So  new  com- 
binations of  men,  new  actions,  or  circumstances  arise, 
which  demand  either  an  old  term  used  in  a  new  sig- 
nification or  a  new  term.     Such  words  as  caucus,  locate, 
donate,  pre-empt,  immigrant,  skedaddle,  telegram,  freshet, 
sleigh,  and  many  others  Were  used  first  in  America,  and 
some  of  them  are  still  confined  to  America.     Wigwam, 
tomahaivk,  originated  among  the  aborigines  of  North 
America;  taboo,  tattoo,  came  from  the  Pacific  Islands. 
These  are  but  specimens  of  the  foreign  words  contin- 
ually admitted  into  our  language. 

More  will  be  said  hereafter  about  the  proper  use  of 
new  words. 


PAUCITY   OF    WORD  IS.  53 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

FAULTS     TO     BE     AVOIDED. 

31.  THE  faults  to  be  avoided  in  the  use  of  words 
are  as  follows : 

(1).  Paucity. — To  endeavor  to  speak  or  write  with- 
out a  good  supply  of  words  is  as  absurd  as  to  endeav- 
or to  till  the  earth  without  the  necessary  implements 
of  agriculture,  or  to  build  a  house  without  sufficient 
material.  We  need  not  resume  the  inquiry  whether 
thought  can  exist  without  language,  for  all  will  allow 
that  Rhetoric  demands  words.  A  writer  may  endeav- 
or to  make  a  few  words  express  much  thought,  and 
fail  either  to  develop  his  own  thoughts  into  fullness 
and  accuracy,  or  to  make  any  but  the  most  indistinct 
and  unsatisfactory  impression  upon  others,  for  the 
want  of  a  sufficient  copiousness  of  words.  In  such  a 
case,  the  same  word,  on  the  same  page,  or  in  one  pro- 
duction, is  made  to  bear  more  than  one  meaning,  some- 
times several  meanings.  The  emphasis  and  gesture 
which  might  indicate  the  different  meanings  when  ut- 
tered, can  not  be  denoted  on  the  silent,  passionless  page, 
and  the  reader,  uninstructed  and  confused,  pronounces 
the  writer  unskilled  and  feeble,  and  probably  throws 
the  book  down  in  disgust.  Speakers  who  have  but 
few  -words  can  not  interest  sensible  hearers  a  long 


54  Jt  Hi-:  TO  XIV. 

time.  Always  employ  words  enough  to  convey  your 
meaning  fully  and  perspicuously,  and  avoid  the  use 
of  the  same  word  in  different  significations. 

The  following  may  be  regarded  as  examples  of  a 
violation  of  this  rule  : 

"A  right  action  being  one  conformed  to  the  law,  we  may  rightly 
say  the  actor  had  a  right  to  perform  it,  i.  <?.,  the  law  given  laid  it 
upon  him  as  a  duty.  And  thus  we  come  at  once,  as  it  were,  abrupt- 
ly to  a  right  definition  of  duty,  i.  e.,  a  thing  due,  which  must  be  done 
— which  the  law  requires  me  to  do.  Thus  we  reach  the  doctrine 
that  rights  and  duties  are  reciprocal.'1 

The  above  is  confused  and  obscure,  if  not  illogical. 
Better  thus : 

"  A  right  action  being  one  conformed  to  the  law,  we  ni  \jproperly 
say  that  the  actor  has  a  right  to  perform  it ;  and  if  the  law-giver  de- 
mands activity,  he  has  imposed  it  as  a  duty  upon  the  actor.  Thus 
we  come  at  once,  and  abruptly,  to  a  correct  definition  of  duty :  it 
it  is  an  action  due,  or  that  must  be  done  ;  or,  in  other  words,  which 
the  law  requires  an  agent  to  do.  Thus  we  reach  the  conclusion  that 
rights  and  duties  are  reciprocal." 

The  following  passage  is  susceptible  of  great  im- 
provement : 

"  And  yet,  with  so  urgent  a  need  to  be  free  from  every  intemperate 
stain  and  weakness,  is  it  not  almost  proverbially  true  that,  in  the 
ranks  of  nominal  students,  there  seems  to  be  an  especial  liability  to 
fall  into  some  form  or  another  of  sickly  and  enslaving  indulgence ; 
it  seems  often  as  though  the  soul  made  just  effort  enough  to  rise  and 
be  strong  to  show  its  weakness.  Hence  their  restlessness  oftentimes 
in  their  seeming  attempt  of  divorce  from  the  flesh ;  hence  dram- 
drinking  and  sottish  eating  of  precious  good  things ;  hence  smoking 
and  chewing,  and  all  sorts  of  vicious  and  consuming  lusts,  so  often 
appear,  as  it  were,  in  very  mockery  and  derision  of  the  professed  at- 
tempt of  studious  men  to  train  up  their  souls  in  power  and  freedom, 
in  reason  as  one  with  the  end  and  substance  of  their  noble  being." 

Strong  as  the  above  sentiment  is,  it  seems  to  be 


REPETITION.  55 

expressed  in  a  kind  of  stilted  simplicity.     Would  it 
not  be  more  elegant  and  even  impressive  thus  ? 

"  And  yet,  with  so  urgent  a  necessity  of  being  free  from  every  stain 
and  enfeebling  influence  of  intemperance,  is  it  not  almost  prover- 
bially true  that  many  who  call  themselves  students  are  especially 
prone  to  fall  into  some  enfeebling  and  enslaving  indulgence  ?  The 
souls  of  such  men  often  seem  to  have  striven  to  rise  just  enough  to 
demonstrate  their  imbecility.  Hence  their  restlessness  often,  in 
their  abortive  efforts  to  escape  from  their  enslavement  to  the  flesh. 
Hence  dram-drinking,  smoking  and  chewing  of  tobacco,  and  all  sorts 
of  vicious  and  destructive  lusts  so  often  appear  to  mock  and  deride 
those  men  who  profess  to  be  attempting  by  study  to  train  up  their 
souls  in  power  and  freedom  in  obedience  to  reason,  as  the  very  end 
and  completion  of  their  nobler  being." 

It  is  difficult  to  expose  this  defect  except  by  re- 
writing and  adding  to  those  productions  in  which  it 
appears  to  be  exhibited.  An  abundance  of  words, 
properly  used,  indicates  abundant  thought. 

Many  speakers  are  doomed  to  inferior  influence, 
many  books  pass  rapidly  into  oblivion,  from  the  want 
of  a  sufficiently  extensive  vocabulary.* 

At  the  same  time,  the  frequent  repetition  of  a  word 
in  the  same  discourse,  or  even  paragraph,  is  allowable 
for  emphasis,  as  is  illustrated  by  the  use  of  the  word 
hypothesis  in  the  following  extract  from  Professor 
Thomas  H.  Huxley : 

"  Do  not  allow  yourself  to  be  misled  by  the  common  notion  that  a 

*  It  has  been  said  that  inquiries  made  by  telegraph  companies  in 
England  have  ascertained  that  the  number  of  words  in  ordinary  use, 
in  business  matters,  is  only  about  three  thousand.  Many  speakers 
and  even  writers  employ  even  fewer  words  than  that,  while  Milton 
used  not  more  than  six  thousand.  The  number  of  different  words 
in  the  English  Bible  is  about  nine  thousand.  Shakspeare  used 
more  than  twenty  thousand. 


56  KilETORKJ. 

hypothesis  is  untrustworthy  because  it  is  a  hypothesis.  It  is  often 
urged,  in  respect  to  some  scientific  conclusion,  that,  after  all,  it  is 
only  a  hypothesis.  But  what  more  have  we  to  guide  us  in  nine- 
tenths  of  the  most  important  affairs  of  daily  life  than  hypotheses,  and 
often  very  ill-based  ones  ?  So  that  in  science,  where  the  evidence 
of  a  hypothesis  is  subjected  to  the  most  rigid  examination,  we  may 
rightly  pursue  the  same  course.  You  may  have  hypotheses  and  hy- 
potheses. A  man  may  say,  if  he  likes,  that  the  moon  is  made  of 
green  cheese  ,  that  is  a  hypothesis.  But  another  man,  who  has  de- 
voted a  great  deal  of  time  and  attention  to  the  subject,  and  availed 
himself  of  the  most  powerful  telescopes  and  the  results  of  the  obser- 
vations of  others,  declares  that  in  his  opinion  it  is  probably  composed 
of  materials  very  similar  to  those  of  which  our  earth  is  made  up :  and 
that  also  is  a  hypothesis." 

(2.)  Redundancy. — This  is  the  exact  opposite  of 
Paucity ;  and  consists  in  using  more  words  than  are 
necessary  to  express  the  thought.  It  is  the  most 
common  fault  of  poor  writings  and  inferior  speeches. 
Vigorous  and  able  writers  not  seldom  fall  into  this 
error. 

It  sometimes  arises  from  a  want  of  thought,  leading 
the  author  to  repeat  over  and  over  again  the  little  mo- 
dicum of  sense  or  feeling  which  he  is  able  to  com- 
mand. It  then  leads  to  tautology. 

Sometimes  it  arises  from  a  parrot-like  facility  in  re- 
membering words  from  their  sound,  without  much  at- 
tention to  their  meaning.  In  such  a  case  the  produc- 
tions soon  weary  men  of  good  sense. 

Sometimes  it  arises  from  an  ease  in  expressing  the 
same  general  thought  in  two  or  more  different  ways, 
equally  correct,  and  all  impressive.  In  such  a  case 
redundancy  is  not  always  a  blemish  in  speaking,  nor 
in  writings  that  are  designed  to  be  read  but  once,  and 
rather  carelessly,  like  daily  newspapers ;  but  in  books 


If  ED  UNDANC  T.  57 

designed  to  be  preserved  and  studied,  all  redundan- 
cies should  be  omitted. 

We  append  some  examples. 

"I  felt  truly  sorry  for  this  young  man.  I  will  not  assert  that  he 
showed  any  extraordinary  amount  of  quickness  or  depth  of  intellect, 
but  he  has  an  adequate  amount  of  talent,  and  so  much  real  sensibility 
and  feeling,  that  he  could  not  fail  to  gain  friends  in  any  country  in 
the  world.  I  pity  him  ;  for,  amid  this  complete  dearth  of  congenial  so- 
ciety, it  will  be  wonderful  indeed  if  he  does  not  become  a  true  Mala- 
gasey  at  last."* 

Better  thus : 

"I  felt  truly  sorry  for  this  young  man.  I  will  not  assert  that  he 
showed  extraordinary  quickness  or  depth  of  intellect ;  but  he  lias 
talent  enough,  and  so  much  sensibility  that  he  could  not  fail  to  gain 
friends  in  any  country ;  but  amid  this  dearth  of  congenial  society,  it 
will  be  wonderful  if  he  does  not  become  a  true  Malagasey." 

More  than  thirty  per  cent,  of  the  words  are  thus 
saved,  and  the  force  of  the  expression  increased. 

"The  Egyptians  used  to  use  myrrh,  spices,  and  nitre  for  embalm- 
ing the  dead  bodies  of  the  deceased. " 

It  would  seem  incredible  that  a  man  of  sense  would 
employ  so  many  useless  words  as  in  the  above  sen- 
tence. It  should  be,  "  The  Egyptians  were  accustom- 
ed to  use  spices  and  nitre  for  embalming  dead  bodies." 

"  By  a  multiplicity  and  variety  of  words,  the  thoughts  and  sentiments 
are  not  set  off  and  accommodated ;  but,  like  David  dressed  out  and 
equipped  in  Saul's  armor,  they  are  encumbered  and  ojypressed." 

The  sentence  is  greatly  strengthened  by  omitting 
the  italicized  words. 

A  lecturer  on  art  who  strove  to  use  a  correct  style 
speaks  of  "  interpretations  of  a  passage  by  the  learned 

*  Ida  Pfeiffer's  visit  to  Madagascar. 

C2 


58  RHETORK ". 

Gesner,  by  Solanus,  and  Reitzius,  which  are  laughably 
absurd,  and  ridiculous!" 

Would  not  the  following  passage  from  an  elegant 
and  instructive  writer  be  improved  by  striking  out  the 
italicized  words? 

"And  is  there  nothing  analogous  to  this  in  the  social  world?  Is 
not  the  whole  frame-work  of  our  present  social  system  founded  on  the 
eternally  unchangeable  law  of  the  subordination  and  subserviency  of  one 
human  organism  to  another  ?  In  order  to  be  happy,  man  must  bo 
free  to  develop  himself,  j  But  individual  freedom  must  necessarily  en- 
gender inequality  so  long  as  one  human  organism  has  more  life-ener- 
gy than  another.  We  see  the  results  of  this  principle  (inequality  of 
natural  gift)  in  a  common  school,  where  all  are  placed  in  the  same  circum- 
stances and  on  an  equal  footing.  What  a  remarkable  difference  in 
the  aptness  of  boys  for  particular  branches  of  study !  With  what  ra- 
pidity and  apparent  ease  some  get  through  the  tasks  allotted  them  - 
How  slow  and  wearisome  the  progress  made  by  others !  Undoubted- 
ly the  diligent  and  attentive  student  is  generally,  at  the  end  of  the 
term,  the  most  advanced  in  his  class.  But  even  in  a  well-regulated 
school,  where  industrious  habits  are  carefully  cultivated,  where  the 
strictest  discipline  is  rigidly  enforced,  and  where  all  are  not  only  ex- 
pected but  actually  made  to  study,  there  is  the  same  variety  in  the  nat- 
ural capacities  of  the  scholars,  the  same  striking  diversity  in  their  in- 
tellectual progress.  When  reference  is  made  to  the  standing  of  each 
at  the  commencement  and  then  at  the  close  of  the  session,  some  boys 
have  got  far  ahead  of  the  others  in  the  same  branch,  notwithstanding 
those  who  have  had  the  misfortune  to  fall  back  IN  their  class  have  not 
nnfrcquontly  received  the  greatest  share  of  the  time  and  attention  of 
their  teacher.  Thus,  notwithstanding  the  oft-cited  saying  of  Euclid, 
'There  is  no  royal  road  to  learnim:,'  it  is  undeniable  that  there  is 
such  a  thing  as  an  innate  or  natural  intellectual  and  moral  superiority 
of  capacity  possessed  by  one  man  over  another. "* 

32.  Discrimination  on  the  proj>>  r  X»mber  of  Words 
needed. — It  is  possible  that  some  persons  may  not  con- 
sider the  above  extract  improved  by  annulling  the  ital- 
icized words,  but  it  should  be  observed  that  concise 
productions,  if  perspicuous,  please  cultivated  minds, 

*  What  maybe  Learned  from  a  Tree.     By  Harland  Coultas,  p.  71. 


WHEN  DIFFUSENESS   IS  ALLOWABLE.        59 

and  control  the  attention  better  than  diffuse  ones.  The 
importance  of  this  subject  requires  discriminating 
study.  In  some  instances  diffuseness,  and  what  might 
be  called  tautology,  is  necessary,  as  when  a  subject  is 
difficult  to  be  understood  by  the  persons  addressed,  or 
when  it  is  disagreeable,  and  must  be  circuitously  and 
slowly  approached.  A  word  of  many  syllables,  slowly 
uttered,  may  sometimes  be  more  efficient  than  a  short, 
sharp  expression.  "  He  was  tremendously  alarmed," 
is  more  impressive  than  a  shorter  expression  would  be. 
When  the  author  wishes  a  subject  to  be  thought  of 
more  than  it  will  be  with  one,  even  the  very  best  ex- 
pression, he  may  use  more  words  than  are  strictly  nec- 
essary. Every  one  should  be  able  at  pleasure  to  use 
a  clear,  sharp,  laconic  style. 

-  (  /  4^-    ££t)>-tK  <?  t~S 

^_,  io   -  - 

^a. 


tiO  i.'HKTORIV. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

FURTHER  DIRECTIONS   UPON  THE  CHOICE  OF  WORDS. 

33.  Purity  of  Words. — THE  English  language  is 
largely  made  up  of  words  that  have  been  introduced 
from  other  languages,  and  this  process  may  yet  con- 
tinue ;  still  it  violates  good  taste  to  use  foreign  terras 
needlessly  and  excessively.  This  practice  savors  of 
pedantry.  It  affects  to  display  learning,  but  often  be- 
tray vanity.  It  frequently  indicates  deficiency  rather 
than  proficiency  in  scholarship.  Ripe  scholars  can  af- 
ford to  confine  themselves  to  one  language  at  a  time, 
and  use  foreign  expressions  in  their  composition  only 
when  they  \vish  to  express  a  shade  of  thought  that 
can  not  be  conveyed  in  the  idiom  of  the  English  lan- 
guage, or  when  they  wish  to  avail  themselves  of  as- 
sociations connected  with  some  foreign  expression, 
or  when  they  wish  to  make  a  direct  quotation  from  a 
production  in  another  language. 

Let  a  young  writer  remember  that  the  profuse  use 
of  hackneyed  foreign  terms,  usually  found  in  a  list  at 
the  close  of  our  spelling-books  and  dictionaries,  such 
as  prima  facie,  beau  ideal,  legio  tenons,  bonafide,  is  not 
so  much  an  indication  of  scholarship  as  either  of  care- 
lessness or  pedantry.  When  such  a  phrase  is  em- 


FOREIGN   TERMS  SOMETIMES  PROPER.       01 

ployed  by  a  truly  learned  writer,  there  is  an  aptness 
or  reason  for  its  use,  that  can  not  well  be  compre- 
hended except  by  a  person  familiar  with  the  language 
from  which  it  is  taken.  A  show  of  erudition,  with 
which  to  astonish  the  vulgar,  may  be  obtained  from 
an  encyclopaedia  in  half  an  hour,  but  it  will  never  de- 
ceive the  learned. 

34.  The  Use  of  foreign  Words  sometimes  proper. — At 
the  same  time  it  must  be  allowed  that  foreign  words 
may  sometimes  be  used  with  good  effect.  When 
those  addressed  may  be  presumed  to  understand  them, 
when  they  are  clothed  with  familiar  associations,  when 
they  serve  as  a  cloak  for  ideas  that  would  be  less 
agreeable  in  a  native  dress,  or  when  they  express 
what  a  native  word  can  not,  they  may  properly  be 
employed.  • 

Thus  Walter  Scott,  speaking  of  Americans,  says : 
"They  are  advancing  in  the  lists  of  our  literature, 
and  they  will  not  be  long  deficient  in  the  petite  mo- 
rale, especially  as  they  have,  like  ourselves,  the  rage 
for  travelling."  The  word  politeness  might  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  French  words  in  the  above,  but 
would  not  be  so  specific;  "the  amenities  of  social  in- 
tercourse" would  have  been  too  long,  and  neither 
would  have  suggested  the  thought,  that  a  noted 
French  writer  has  termed  social  manners  "  the  minor 
morals." 

Fresco tt,  referring  to  a  defense  of  the  anachronisms 
and  poems  of  Shakspeare  by  an  over-ardent  German 
admirer,  adds :  "  The  old  bard,  could  he  raise  his 
head  from  the  tomb,  where  none  might  disturb  his 


62  RHETORIC. 

bones,*  would  exclaim,  we  imagine,  "  Non  tali  aux- 

tZ».wt 

It  is  not  best  to  accompany  foreign  words  with  a 
translation,  unless  they  are  cited  as  authorities  or 
proofs  given  in  the  original  to  secure  accuracy,  but 
translated  for  the  information  of  all. 

35.  Advice  of  Bryant. — William  Cullen  Bryant,  an 
elegant  American  writer,  whose  prose  writings  are 
not  inferior  in  style  to  his  justly-celebrated  poetry, 
when  requested  to  give  his  opinion  on  an  article  hand- 
ed to  him  by  a  young  man,  to  be  printed  in  his  news- 
paper, said :  "  My  young  friend,  I  observe  that  you 
have  used  several  French  expressions  in  your  article. 
I  think  that,  if  you  will  study  the  English  language, 
you  will  find  it  capable  of  expressing  all  the  ideas 
thai  you  may  have.     I  have  always  found  it  so ;  and 
in  all  that  I  have  written  I  do  not  recall  an  instance 
in  which  I  was  inclined  to  use  a  foreign  word,  but 
that,  on  searching,  I  found  a  better  one  in  my  own 
language." 

Foreign  words  are  seldom  needed  except  for  orna- 
ment. A  well-cultivated  taste  is  necessary  to  direct  in 
their  use,  or  they  will  offend  more  than  they  please. 

36.  New  Words  should  not  be  recklessly  Introduced* — 
It  was  remarked  by  Dr.  Noah  Webster,  the  lexicog- 
rapher, that  he  had  never  ventured  to  coin  but  one 

*  In  these  words  is  an  allusion  to  the  epitaph  over  Shakspeare's 
grave. 

t  A  quotation  from  Virgil  (JEneid,  liber  ii.  vs.  521,  522) : 

41  Non  tali  auxilio,  nee  defensoribus  istia 
Tempus  eget."  . 

(The  occasion  does  not  need  such  help,  nor  such  defenders.) 


OBSOLETE   TERMS.  63 

word — demoralize;  and  it  is  an  indication  of  his  sound 
judgment,  both  that  he  attempted  the  enterprise  only 
once,  and  that  he  then  succeeded  so  well.  The  most 
that  have  striven  to  manufacture  words  have  failed  to 
make  them  current.  It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  induce 
a  people  to  substitute  new  standards  of  measure  or  of 
money  for  the  old.  Still,  new  objects,  new  classifica- 
tions, and  new  actions,  render  new  words  necessary. 
Usage  itself  must  have  a  beginning,  and  this  should 
not  be  left  wholly  to  the  ignorant  We  have  as  good 
a  right  to  new  words,  or  to  old  words  with  new  mean- 
ings, as  we  have  to  new  thoughts. 

37.  When  Allowable. — New  terms  must  be  intro- 
duced by  writers  on  science  and  art  so  often  as  any 
new  object  or  law  is.  discovered.     They  should  be  in- 
troduced naturally  and  from  necessity,  not  capricioiis- 
ly  and  presumptuously.     Venders  of  quack  medicines, 
and  other  pretenders  to  science,  are  continually  at- 
tempting to  introduce  new  words  to  describe  their 
nostrums  or  notions,  such  as  sozodont,  abracadabra,  and 
thousands  of  others,  not  one  of  which  has  passed  into 
reputable  usage.     The  startling  effect  produced  by  a 
new  word  is  generally  soon  lost,  and  followed  by  dis- 
approbation, as  a  person  arraying  himself  in  uncouth 
garments  may  attract  attention  for  a  moment,  but  will 
not  be  admitted  into  good  society. 

38.  Obsolete  and  Obsolescent  Words  should  generally 
be  avoided. — The  fact  that  they  are  obsolete,  or  indeed 
obsolescent,  indicates  either  that  they  are  useless,  or 
that  for  some  reason  they  have  been  displaced  by 
others.     Attempts  to  revive  the  use  of  a  forgotten 


64  RHETORIC. 

word  are  usually  failures.  "  Thou  shalt  destroy  them 
that  speak  leasing  "  is  not  understood  by  the  people, 
lying  being  now  substituted  for  leasing.  "  Wot "  for 
knew,  "  took  up  our  carriages  "  for  took  up  our  luggage, 
and  some  other  expressions,  are  instances  of  terms  in 
the  common  translation  of  the  Bible  that  are  now  ob- 
solete. They  can  not  easily  be  revived. 

In  personating  a  character  who  is  supposed  to  have 
lived  in  a  preceding  age,  it  would  be  proper  to  repre- 
sent him  as  speaking  the  language  common  in  his 
time,  or  at  least  to  use  many  characteristic  terms,  to  aid 
in  the  illusion.  Thus  Thomson,  in  his  "  Castle  of 
Indolence,"  imitating  the  style  of  Spenser,  introduced 
many  obsolete  terms. 

The  attempt  by  some  modern  poets  to  revive  the 
use  of  forgotten  words  will  be  nugatory.  As  "  revo- 
lutions seldom  work  backward,"  so  the  tide  that  bears 
a  word  toward  oblivion  seldom  has  an  ebb. 

39.  Words  should  be  used  in  their  Modern  Meaning. — 
Words  that  have  changed  their  signification  should 
be  used  in  their  modern  meaning.     Prevent  once  sig- 
nified go  before ;  now  it  has  a  meaning  that  no  other 
word  exactly  expresses.     Let  is  no  longer  needed  in 
the  sense  of  hinder,  as  it  was  once  employed. 

40.  Degeneracy  of  Words. — Many  words  have  de- 
generated in  value,  and  it  is  impossible  to  restore  them 
to  their  former  honor.     Thus  by-and-by  once  meant 
immediately:  "Which  of  you,  having  a  servant  plow- 
ing or  feeding  cattle,  will  say  unto  him  by-and-by,  when 
he  is  come  from  the  field,  Go  and  sit  down  to  meat?" 
(Luke  xvii.  7). 


WORD  IS    CHANGE  IN  MEANING.  65 

Presently  also  once  had  the  same  meaning.  Thus 
Shakspeare  writes :  "  My  lord,  the  queen  would  speak 
with  you  and  presently  " — meaning  now  ;  and  the  re- 
ply is,  "  Then  will  I  come  to  my  mother  by-and-by  " 
(Hamlet,  act  iii.  scene  2). 

Though  words  do  thus  change  their  usage,  in  some 
instances  degenerating  in  value,  and  in  others  rising 
in  importance,  good  scholarship  is  often  exhibited  by 
restricting  a  word,  as  far  as  possible,  to  its  ancient 
meaning.  By  this  mark  a  speaker  skilled  in  the  an- 
cient languages  may  often  be  distinguished  from  one 
ignorant  of  them. 

Words  have  a  history,  and  some  of  them  a  rich 
history.  Jovial  was  once  "suitable  to  Jove,"  it  is 
now  degraded  to  merry ;  saturnine  was  once  mysteri- 
ous and  profound,  now  it  is  gloomy ;  "animal  spirits," 
"  humorous,"  and  "  vapors  "  suggest  a  theory  of  phys- 
iology long  since  discarded,  but  words  often  survive 
the  theories  that  invented  them. 


00 


CHAPTER  X. 

FURTHER  DIRECTIONS  UPON  THE  CHOICE  OF 

WORDS —  Continued. 

41.  Provincialisms.  —  PROVINCIALISMS  should  be 
avoided,  or  sparingly  and  discriminately  employed. 
Some  words  are  used  in  confined  localities,  and  are 
unknown  elsewhere.    If  they  are  substituted  for  other 
w^ell-known  words  in  the  language;  they  should  be 
discarded.     If  they  express  objects  or  customs  pecul- 
iar to  that  locality,  they  should  be  tolerated  and  ren- 
dered respectable.     There  is  no  particular  reason  why 

'^tcoat  in  England  should  be  called  a  vest  in  Amer- 
ica, or  why  trowsers,  railway,  autumn  there,  should  be 
styled  here  respectively  pantaloons  or  pants,  railroad, 
fall:*  and  yet  so  numerous  is  the  population  in 
America  that  her  peculiarities  of  speech  promise  to 
become  permanent  and  the  rule,  while  in  some  in- 
stances the  older  and  perhaps  purer  English  will  be- 
come obsolete,  even  in  England.  The  word  clever  in 
England  signifies  intelligent,  intellectual,  and  able  to 
succeed  ;  in  the  United  States  it  is  often  used  to  mean 
generous,  amiable. 

42.  Americanisms. — It  is  often  assumed  that  Amer- 

*  Used  occasionally  in  Scotland  (see  Beattie's  Life  of  Thomas 
Campbell,  vol.  i.  p.  200). 


VULGARISM*.  67 

icans  use  many  provincialisms,  which  have  been  call- 
ed "Americanisms,"  though,  in  fact,  no  people  use 
so  few.  Many  of  the  inaccuracies  that  have  been 
styled  Americanisms  have  been  imported,  but  have 
here  obtained  larger  currency  than  at  home,  and  are 
here  oftener  seen  in  print.  There  are  of  course  some 
peculiar  expressions,  and  always  must  be,  of  native 
origin.  The  constant  tendency  in  language  to  change, 
is  introducing  new  forms  of  expression,  all  of  which 
are  provincialisms  at  first.  From  the  multitude  of 
newspapers  in  this  country,  and  the  ease  with  which 
almost  any  one  may  "see  himself  in  print,"  colloqui- 
alisms and  slang  terms  which  finished  scholars  would 
never  repeat,  are  frequently  printed.  All  such  corrup- 
tions of  language  should  be  discountenanced.  Thus 
calculate  is  sometimes  used  for  intend,  reckon  and  pre- 
sume are  substituted  for  think  by  persons  who  sel- 
dom think  closely,  or  they  would  use  words  more  ac- 
curately. 

43.  Vulgarisms. — Vulgarisms  are  words  and  phrases 
which,  from  their  origin  or  general  use,  have  a  tenden- 
cy to  excite  low  and  mean  associations.     "  You  can 
see  with  half  an  eye,"  "  Go  it  blind,"  are  instances. 
Similar  to  these  are  hackneyed  words  or  phrases, 
sometimes  called  catch -words,  which  arise  in  particu- 
lar places  where  a  company  of  persons  pursuing  the 
same  course  are  associated  together,  such  as  army- 
phrases,  college-words,  sailors'  expressions,  all  of  which 
should  be  sedulously  excluded  from  dignified  address- 
es or  writings. 

44.  Words  used  erroneously  for  Others  similar  in 


68 

'. — Careless  speakers  and  even  writers  some- 
times mistake  a  word  for  another  similar  to  it  in 
sound,  but  more  or  less  widely  different  in  meaning. 
Ludicrous  errors  are  thus  made  by  ignorant  persons. 
Thus  it  would  not  surprise  us  to  hear  that  "  the  ob- 
servation of  Christmas  as  a  holiday  is  commendable," 
while  observance  is  evidently  meant.  Consciousness 
may  thus  be  used  for  conscience,  and  many  errors  of 
this  kind  are  often  heard  from  uneducated  or  careless 
speakers. 

45.  Ambiguous  Expressions.  —  Ambiguous  words 
should  be  avoided.  Words  capable  of  having  two  or 
more  meanings,  or  so  employed  as  to  admit  of  diverse 
interpretations,  should  never  be  used  unless  it  is  the 
deliberate  intention  of  the  author  to  leave  the  matter 
undecided  and  uncertain. 

"  Solomon,  the  son  of  David,  who  built  the  Tem- 
ple, was  the  best  King  of  Israel."  It  is  not  stated  in 
this  sentence  who  built  the  Temple. 

"Lysias  promised  to  his  father  never  to  abandon 
his  friends."  It  is  impossible  to  decide  whose  friends 
are  meant,  whether  those  of  Lysias  or  of  his  father. 

No  language  more  abounds  in  ambiguities  than 
the  English.  Indeed  it  may  be  doubted  whether  any 
ambiguity  can  be  found  in  any  language  that  may 
not  be  translated  into  English.'  Certainly  it  might  be 
imitated  and  paralleled  in  our  language.  For  this 
reason,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  it,  but 
even  after  the  utmost  care  it  will  sometimes  occur. 

In  all  legal  documents,  such  as  constitutions,  laws, 
treaties,  contracts,  wills,  bonds,  and  deeds,  ambiguity 


AMBIGUOUS  EXPRESSIONS.  69 

should  be  specially  guarded  against,  for  it  has  often 
led  to  heated  contests,  litigation,  and  even  to  war.  Le- 
gal enactments  have  been  rendered  inoperative  by  a 
single  ambiguous  expression ;  constitutions  have  been 
perverted  from  their  original  design,  and  creeds  have 
been  made  to  teach  precisely  the  opposite  to  what  their 
authors  believed.  In  such  papers  every  other  grace 
of  composition  ought  to  be  sacrificed  to  perspicuity, 
which  can  be  attained  only  by  using  the  right  word 
in  the  right  place. 

The  oracles  of  the  heathen  priests  were  generally 
capable  of  several  interpretations.  Thus  when  Pyr- 
rhus  applied  to  the  priestess  of  Delphi  to  ascertain 
whether  he  should  be  successful  against  the  Komans, 
he  received  the  reply :  "  Aio  te,  Eacidac,  Romanos  vin- 
cere,  posse  " —  "I  say  that  you,  O  thou  son  of  Eacus, 
the  Romans  are  able  to  conquer."  Whether  he  should 
conquer,  or  the  Romans,  was  still  undecided.  His 
self-love  prompted  him  to  adopt  the  former  meaning, 
and,  when  overcome,  the  friends  of  the  priestess  claim- 
ed her  infallibility,  as  indicated  by  the  latter  meaning. 

"Lovest  thou  me  more  than  these?" — the  question 
of  Jesus  to  Peter — is,  in  our  translation  of  the  Bible, 
ambiguous,  as  it  may  mean,  "Lovest  thou  me  more 
than  thou  lovest  these?"  or  "Lovest  thou  me  more 
than  these  do  ?"  The  last  meaning  is  evidently  the  one 
intended. 

In  speaking,  ambiguity  may  often  be  prevented  by 
emphasis,  and,  in  writing,  by  a  judicious  punctuation. 
In  scientific  papers,  it  is  indispensable  that  the  right 
words  should  be  employed.  No  reader  wishes  to 


70 

waste  his  time  in  studying  productions  which  may  be 
construed  into  several  uncertain  meanings. 

46.  Intentional  Ambiguity. — Ambiguity  may  be  in- 
tentional ;  and  if  it  can  be  morally  justified,  it  furnish- 
es ample  scope  for  ingenuity.  Talleyrand,  a  famous 
French  diplomat,  is  often  credited  with  the  proverb, 
"Language  is  intended  to  conceal,  not  to  reveal 
thought."  AY.  Guthrie,  Esq.,  in  the  preface  to  his 
translation  of  Quintilian,  published  1775,  says :  "  Dur- 
ing such  a  state  of  the  public,  the  business  of  rhetoric 
was  to  teach  men  not  how  to  express,  but  how  to  con- 
ceal their  thoughts."  As  an  instance  of  ambiguity  in 
playful  composition,  take  the  remark  of  the  poet, 
Thomas  Campbell,  to  a  friend :  "This  is  very  shabby 
of  you,  after  the  sublime  and  pathetic  ode  which  I  ad- 
dressed to  you  —  a  composition  which  will  remain  in 
the  English  language  until  it  is  forgotten  /"  A  sufficient 
number  of  specimens  of  intentional  ambiguity  could 
easily  be  gathered  from  the  writings  and  speeches  of 
diplomatists  and  politicians. 

-17.  Words  symbolically  Employed. — Those  who  are 
accustomed  to  think  closely  will  observe  that  words 
are  often  employed,  even  by  the  ablest  of  speakers, 
as  algebraists  employ  signs  and  symbols,  without  a 
conscious  and  full  perception  of  their  meaning,  by  a 
sort  of  manipulation  or  combination,  and  are  finally 
thought  out  in  the  conclusion. 

In  a  treatise,  for  instance,  on  universities,  commerce, 
war,  agriculture,  or  any  other  subject,  it  is  by  no 
means  true  that  the  author  every  time  that  he  uses  tho 
word  has  a  full  conception  of  it ;  but  nevertheless  he 


MORALITY   OF   CORRECT    WORDS.  71 

uses  it  correctly,  and  his  conclusions  are  so  far  just 
as  they  apply  to  the  word  in  all  its  proper  significa- 
tions. The  genuine  scholar,  when  either  speaking  or 
listening  to  a  good  composition,  might  with  propriety 
say  to  an  unskilled  audience, 

"I  sec  a  hand  you  can  not  sec, 
I  hear  a  voice  you  can  not  hear." 

48.  The  Morality  and  Value  of  exact  Expressions. — 
There  is  an  intimate  connection  between  words  and 
the  moral  character.  It  has  been  wittily  said, 

"  Words  lead  to  things  :  a  scale  is  more  precise  ; 
Coarse  speech,  bad  grammar,  swearing,  drinking,  vice."* 

An  eloquent  writer  forcibly  remarks  : 

"Words  are  instruments  of  music  ;  an  ignorant  man  uses  them  for 
jargon ;  but  when  a  master  touches  them  they  have  unexpected  life 
and  soul.  Some  words  sound  out  like  drums;  some  breathe  memo- 
ries sweet  as  flutes  ;  some  call  like  a  clarionet ;  some  shout  a  charge 
like  trumpets  ;  some  are  as  sweet  as  children's  talk  ;  others  rich  as  a 
mother's  answering  back.  The  words  which  have  universal  power  are 
those  that  have  been  keyed  and  chorded  in  the  great  orchestral  cham- 
ber of  the  human  heart.  Some  words  touch  as  many  notes  at  a  stroke 
as  when  an  organist  strikes  ten  fingers  upon  a  key-board.  There  are 
single  words  which  contain  life-histories  ;  and  to  hear  them  spoken  is 
like  the  ringing  of  chimes.  He  who  knows  how  to  touch  and  handle 
skillfully  the  home-words  of  his  mother's  tongue  need  ask  nothing  of 
jstyle."t 

On  the  value  of  abundant  and  appropriate  words, 
Dr.  J.  G.  Holland  has  written  the  following  beautiful 
verses : 

"  The  robin  repeats  his  two  beautiful  words, 
The  meadow-lark  whistles  his  one  refrain  ; 
And  steadily,  over  and  over  again, 
The  same  song  swells  from  a  hundred  birds. 

*O.W.  Holmes.' 

t  Introduction  to  Mrs.  Browning's  Last  Poems.  By  Theodore 
Tilton,  Esq. 


72  RHETORIC. 

"  Bobolink,  chickadee,  blackbird  and  jay, 

Thrasher  and  woodpecker,  cuckoo  and  wren, 
Each  sings  its  word,  or  its  phrase,  and  then 
It  has  nothing  further  to  sing  or  say. 

"  Into  that  word,  or  that  sweet  little  phrase, 
All  there  may  be  of  its  life  must  crowd ; 
And  low  and  liquid,  or  hoarse  and  loud, 
It  breathes  its  burden  of  joy  and  praise. 

"A  little  child  sits  in  his  father's  door, 

Chatting  and  singing  with  careless  tongue; 
A  thousand  musical  words  are  sung, 
And  he  holds  unuttered  a  thousand  more. 

'  •  Words  measure  power ;  and  they  measure  thine ; 
Greater  art  thou  in  thy  childish  years 
Than  all  the  birds  of  a  hundred  spheres ; 
They  are  brutes  only,  but  thou  art  divine. 

"  Words  measure  destiny.     Power  to  declare 
Infinite  ranges  of  passion  and  thought 
Holds  with  the  infinite  only  its  lot — 
Is  of  eternity  only  the  heir. 

"Words  measure  life,  and  they  measure  its  joy, 
Thou  hast  more  joy  in  thy  childish  years 
Than  the  birds  of  a  hundred  tuneful  spheres, 
So— sing  with  the  beautiful  birds,  my  boy!" 

But  notwithstanding  the  value  of  words,  it  should 
be  remembered  that  it  is  only  intellect  and  emotion 
that  make  them  valuable.  "  Language,"  as  Professor 
Goldwin  Smith  forcibly  says,  "  is  not  a  musical  instru- 
ment into  which,  if  a  fool  breathes,  it  will  make  mel- 
ody." 

49.  Summary  of  Directions. — The  directions  to  be  ob- 
served in  the  use  of  words  may  be  summed  up  as  fol- 
lows :  Employ  words  of  the  English  language,  reject- 
ing foreign  words  except  as  quotations,  or  when  more 
expressive  than  native  words,  accompanying  them  by 
a  translation  if  they  are  liable  to  be  not  understood; 


SUHMAMY   OF  DIRECTIONS.  73 

avoid  obsolete  words,  new  terms,  and  a  profusion  of 
technical  terms,  except  when  treating  upon  the  sub- 
jects to  which  they  especially  apply,  and  then  use  them 
accurately ;  avoid  vulgarisms,  catch-words,  provincial- 
isms, unless  the  nature  of  your  composition  justifies 
them ;  use  no  words  unnecessarily,  especially  in  dif- 
ferent shades  of  meaning ;  study  to  obtain  as  extensive 
a  vocabulary  as  your  thoughts  require,  and  always  to 
use  the  best  words  in  their  proper  places. 

Let  no  one  suppose  that  too  much  attention  has 
been  given  to  this  subject.  Words  are  the  vehicle  of 
thoughts.  They  indicate  both  the  intellectual  and  the 
moral  character.  The  surest  proof  of  scholarship,  of 
discipline,  of  strong  thought,  is  the  right  use  of  words. 

D 


PART    II, 

FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  AND  THOUGHT. 


Wf  are  still  considering  the  material  which  is  employed  to 
convey  thought  and  feeling.  It  will  be  ascertained  that  the 
first  and  true  meaning  of  words  by  no  means  exhausts  this 
power  when  in  actual  use.  Figures  of  speech  embrace  a  valu- 
able part  of  Rhetoric,  and  will  amply  repay  careful  analysis 
and  methodical  examination. 


Fl G  UltA  Tl  \'V   J-:X I'll L'StilOtfti. 


CHAPTER  I. 

TROPES. 

1.  Literal  and  Figurative  Meaning. — THE  meaning 
first  given  to  a  word  is  called  its  literal  meaning. 
Thus  the  literal  meaning  of  head  is  that  part  of  the 
body  containing  the  brain.     The  literal  meaning  of 
body  is  the  whole  physical  structure  of  an  animal. 

A  meaning  different  from  the  first,  and  yet  suggest- 
ed by  the  first  on  account  of  a  similarity,  is  called  a 
figurative  meaning.  Thus  the  word  head  may  mean 
a  commanding  man  in  a  company  ;  it  may  mean  the 
first  object  in  a  collection,  as  the  first  in  a  column  of 
figures,  or  the  starting-place  of  a  fountain  or  stream. 
The  head  of  this  chapter  is  "  Tropes."  Body  may  mean 
an  army,  a  convention,  a  parliament,  the  principal  part 
of  a  discourse  or  of  a  structure.  Soul  may  mean  the 
purpose  or  the  idea,  as  the  soul  of  this  enterprise  is 
personal  ambition. 

2.  The  Foundation  of  Tropes. — The  figurative  use 
of  words  is  always  founded  upon  a  similarity  between 
the  two  objects,  or  the  two  thoughts,  which  the  same 
word  is  employed  to  express,  so  that  a  person  who 
understands  the  literal  meaning  of  the  word  will  also 
readily  perceive  the  figurative  meaning,  though  he 
never  heard  it  employed  in  that  sense  before.     Thus 


78  It  It ET 01!  1 1 

in  the  expression,  ':  The  President  is  the  head  of  the 
Government,"  any  one  who  knows  the  meaning  of 
words  will  see  the  sense  to  be,  "  The  President  sus- 
tains a  relation  to  the  other  men  in  the  Government 
like  the  relation  of  a  head  to  the  other  parts  of  the 
body — more  conspicuous  and  commanding." 

3.  Definition. — Tropes  are  single  words,  used  figur- 
atively or  not,  in  their  literal  meaning. 

The  word  trope  is  from  a  Greek  word  which  signi- 
fies turning,  and  indicates  that  the  word,  called  a  trope, 
is  turned  around  out  of  its  first  position  or  meaning. 

Tropes  are  divided  into  two  classes — Synecdoches 
and  Metonymies. 

4.  Synecdoches. — A  Synecdoche  is  a  trope  in  which 
a  word  is  used  to  express  a  thing  that  differs  from  its 
original  meaning  only  in  degree,  and  not  in 

"  Give  us  our  daily  bread.11  Bread  here  meansyboc?; 
but  bread  originally  has  a  part  of  the  meaning  of  food 
— certain  kinds  of  food  being  called  bread.  "  He  bar- 
tered his  soul  for  gold" — gold  here  standing  fam-tatt/i, 
of  which  literally  it  is  only  a  /-'//•/. 

5.  Metonymies. — A  Metonymy  is  a  trope  in  which  a 
word  is  used  to  express  a  thing  differing  from  its  orig- 
inal meaning  in  1, 

"Addison  was  smooth,  but  Prescott  smoother." 
Here  Addison  means  the  ivritings  of  Addison ;  smooth 
means  pleasing  to  the  ear.  Both  words  are  metort' 
"Always  respect  old  age" — a  metonymy  for  aged  peo- 
ple. "When  speaking  in  a  deliberative  assembly,  al- 
ways address  the.  chair" — a  metonymy  for  the  man 
who,  as  president,  occupies  the  principal  seat,  as  the 


>^    OF   THOPVS.  79 


president's  chair.      Metonymies  are,  it  will  be  seen, 
a  little  bolder  than  Synecdoches. 

6.  Frequency  of  Tropes.  —  Tropes  are  of  frequent  oc- 
currence in  all  writings. 

Sometimes  the  names  of  animals  are  used  for  men, 
as  "Go  tell  that  fox!"  How  much  more  expressive 
than  "  Go  tell  that  crafty  man  /" 

One  inanimate  thing  is  made  to  stand  for  another. 
"  We  are  surrounded  by  a  cloud  of  witnesses"  —  that 
is,  they  are  so  numerous  as  to  suggest  a  cloud  which 
shuts  out  the  light  of  the  sun.  "  The  city  was  over- 
whelmed in  a  ihlii'j''  of  fire." 

7.  Tropes  must  be  Employed.  —  Tropes  arc  absolute- 
ly indispensable  as  a  part  of  the  material  of  every 
author.     If  words  were  confined  to  their  first  mean- 
ing, they  would  be  far  too  few  to  express  the  thoughts 
of  men.     If  every  idea  had  a  word,  no  mortal  memory 
could  command   sufficient   material   to  express  the 
thoughts  of  a  cultivated  mind.     Words,  like  coins  of 
money,  must  be  made  to  represent  successively  differ- 
ent objects,  for  our  convenience. 

If  we  examine  almost  any  written  production,  we 
shall  find  many  tropes  which  can  not  be  removed  with- 
out leaving  what  remains  a  useless  heap  of  ruins.  Let 
us  analyze,  for  illustration,  the  opening  sentences  of  the 
Preface  to  Bancroft's  "  History  of  the  United  States  :" 

"I  have  formed  the  design  of  writing  a  History  of  the  United 
States  from  the  discovery  of  the  American  Continent  to  the  present 
time.  As  the  moment  arrives  for  publishing  a  portion  of  the  work, 
I  nm  impressed  more  strongly  than  ever  with  a  sense  of  the  grandeur 
and  vastness  of  the  subject  ;  and  am  ready  to  charge  myself  with  pre- 
sumption for.  venturing  on  so  bold  an  enterpi'ise," 


BHMTOSIC. 

All  the  words  italicized  in  the  above  extract  (and 
indeed  several  others)  are  tropes.  Form  meant  orig- 
inally to  shape,  as  with  a  knife  or  other  instrument. 
The  shoemaker  forms  a  shoe.  Design  meant  original- 
ly :i  plan  or  map ;  discovery  was  the  process  of  uncov- 
as  potatoes  are  uncovered  to  be  taken  from  the 
ground  ;  impressed  originally  meant  pressed  upon,  as 
the  ground  is  pressed  upon  by  a  falling  stone ;  subject 
is  something  placed  beneath,  as  a  mat  to  stand  upon  ; 
presumption  is  the  act  of  taking  too  soon,  as  pluck- 
ing fruit  before  it  is  ripe,  or  taking  an  object  before 
our  turn,  or  the  time  allotted  to  us;  an  enterprise  is 
something  undertaken,  has  no  life,  and  can  not  be 
bold. 

If  we  find  so  many  tropes  in  a  few  lines  of  unim- 
passioned  prose,  what  may  we  expect  in  poetry  ? 

"So  live,  that  when  thy  summons  come*  to  join 
The  innumerable  caravan  that  in 
To  that  mysterious  realm,  where  each  shall  take 
His  chamber  in  the  silent  halls  of  death  ; 
Thou  go  not  like  the  quarry  slave  at  night, 
Scourged  to  his  dungeon,  but  sustained  and  soothed 
By  an  unfaltering  trust,  approach  thy  grave, 
Like  one  who  wraps  the  drapery  of  his  couch 
Around  him,  and  lies  down  to  pleasant  dreams." 

Let  each  of  the  italic  words  in  the  above  be  carefully 
examined,  and  the  literal  and  figurative  meanings  be 
compared. 

8.  Terms  to  express  Mental  Qualities  and  Actions  all 
Tropes. — Indeed  it  becomes  evident,  by  careful  exam- 
ination, that  nearly  if  not  quite  all  the  language  em- 
ployed to  describe  the  mind  and  mental  action  is 


EMPLOYMENT   OF   Tit  OPES.  81 

figurative.  The  stock  of  words  first  used  by  man 
was  small,  and  described  only  material  objects  and 
changes  and  phenomena.  As  men  gradually  ad- 
vanced to  consider  and  explain  mental  objects  and 
actions,  instead  of  inventing  new  words  to  express 
them,  they  used  ojd  terms  in  a  new  sense.  They 
were  enabled  to  do  this  by  the  fact  that  there  is  a 
mysterious  analogy  between  matter  and  mind,  and 
between  material  and  mental  operations ;  an  analogy 
admirable,  and  that  can  not  be  accidental,  which 
shows  that  God  has  made  material  and  spiritual 
things  to  exist  together  and  illustrate  each  other. 
Neither  can  be  properly  understood  without  studying 
the  other.  Language  links  them  together.  Physics 
must  always  precede  metaphysics.  Khetoric  embraces 
the  presentation  of  both. 

9.  The  original  Meaning  of  many  Tropes  lost.— Near- 
ly if  not  quite  all  of  the  terms  now  used  to  express 
mental  properties  and  actions  were  originally  con- 
fined to  material  objects  and  operations.  But  inas- 
much as  the  English  language  is  a  modern  language, 
and  is  made  up  largely  of  words  transferred  from  oth- 
er languages,  the  most  of  the  words  used  to  describe 
mental  facts  and  actions  have  never  been  used  in  their 
literal  meaning  in  the  English  language.  The  first 
meaning  of  the  words  learned  by  those  who  speak 
only  the  English  language  is  that  which  they  now 
bear,  though  they  were  once  employed  in  other  lan- 
guages in  a  lower  sense. 

We  give  a  few  specimens  of  this  kind  of  word?. 
Reflect,  literally,  to  throw  back,  as  a  mirror  reflects 
D2 


82  RHETORIC. 

the  rays  of  light ;  figuratively,  to  look  at  a  subject  on 
both  sides,  or  to  consider  or  meditate.  Educate,  liter- 
ally, to  lead  out ;  figuratively,  to  instruct  and  train. 
Digest,  literally,  to  bear  away  or  dissolve,  as  water 
dissolves  sugar;  figuratively,  to  reflect  upon  and 
study,  as  to.  digest  a  book.  Other  .words  of  this  char- 
acter are,  associate,  compare,  intellect,  sincere,  consult,  re- 
mark, conclude,  and  hundreds  more.  Many  tropes  have 
become  so  common  that  the  secondary  sense  has  act- 
ually superseded,  and  in  some  cases  wholly  supplant- 
ed, the  primary  signification.  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson 
has  well  said,  "  As  the  limestone  of  the  continent 
consists  of  infinite  masses  of  the  shells  of  animalcules, 
so  language  is  made  up  of  images,  or  tropes,  which 
now,  in  their  secondary  use,  have  long  since  ceased  to 
remind  us  of  their  poetic  origin." 

10.  New  Tropes. — As  the  realm  of  nature  is  more 
widely  and  accurately  explored,  and  as  inventions  are 
multiplied,  new  tropes  are  introduced.     The  material 
for  the  expression  of  mental  action  is  increased.   Such 
words   as   oui  .  strata,  daguerreotype,  in    their 
tropical  or  figurative  sense,  are  of  course  more  recent 
than  they  are  in  their  scientific  sense. 

11.  Advantages  of  Tropes. — The  advantages  of  tropes 
are  groat. 

(1.)  They  enable  us  to  express  many  thoughts  by 
a  few  words.  Our  best  words  have  several  significa- 
tions— a  literal  sense  and  two  or  more  figurative  senses. 
A  new  tropical  sense  of  an  old  word  is  equivalent  to 
the  addition  of  a  word  to  our  language,  while  if  the 
tropical  sense  is  naturally  suggested  by  the  primitive 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  TROPES.  83 

sense,  the  memory  is  not  burdened,  and  the  imagina- 
tion is  pleased.  We  can  not  afford  a  new  word  for 
every  thought. 

(2.)  Tropes  give  new  power  and  beauty  to  lan- 
guage. 

A  sentiment  tropically  expressed  is  much  more 
forcible,  and  often  much  more  beautiful,  than  literally 
expressed. 

"The  moon  climbs  up  the  sky." 

"  Within  this  wall  of  flesh 
There  is  a  soul." 

"Which  angry  tides  cast  up  on  desert  shore." 
"This  is  a  drowsy  night." 

"  Let  him  keep  the  keen,  deep,  and  precious  hatred,  set  on  fire  of 
hell,  alive  if  be  can." 

12.  Classification  of  Tropes. — Tropes  have  been  care- 
fully classified  by  grammarians,  though  no  great  prac- 
tical benefit  in  speaking  arises  from  a  memory  of  the 
classification. 

SYNECDOCHES  may  be  divided  into  four  classes: 

(1.)  Using  the  Species  for  the  Genus. — "  Give  us  our 
daily  bread"  Bread,  the  lower  or  narrower  class,  is 
used  for  the  higher  and  broader  class,  food.  "He 
beareth  not  the  sword  in  vain."  Here  sword  is  used 
for  all  the  means  a  magistrate  has  to  execute  justice. 

It  produces  a  sharper  impression  to  use  limited, 
definite  words,  rather  than  broader,  and  consequently 
flatter  expressions.  Orators  spontaneously  employ 
this  kind  of  trope  frequently. 


84  RHKTURKJ. 

(2.)  Autonomasia  (a  trope  of  the  same  kind),  using 
ime  of  an  Individual  for  the  Class  to  which  he  be- 
longs.— "  He  is  the  second  Washington  ;"  "  A  Dan- 
iel, a  second  Daniel,  come  to  judgment."  How  much 
more  forcible  than  "  A  wise  interpreter  of  law  come 
to  judgment!"  Thus  a  traitor  may  be  called  a  Cati- 
line or  a  Benedict  Arnold.  A  mere  stickler  for  polite 
forms  is,  in  the  following  sentence  from  Lord  Brough- 
am, called  a  Chesterfi- 

"Should  you  feel  much  soothed  by  hearing  that  some  opposition 
Chesterfield  had  taken  alarm  at  the  want  of  politeness  among  his 
brethren,  and  altered  the  words,  retaining  their  offensive  sense  ?" 

When  a  sharp  impression  is  to  be  made,  use  the 
most  definite  terms  possible.  Instead  of  war  or  con- 
tention, use  battle  or  fight ;  instead  of  passion,  use  an- 
ger, fear,  covetousness — as  the  case  may  be.  This 
principle  is  involved  in  such  tropes  as  the  following: 
"  All  hands  take  hold,"  instead  of  "  All  men  take 
hold  ;"  "  Least  among  the  hundreds  of-Judah,"  instead 
of  "The  small  villages  of  Judah  ;"  " A  fleet  of  fifty 
sa?7,"  instead  of  "fifty  ships;"  "The  debt  was  paid 
in  green-backs"  instead  of  "  in  paper-money,  consisting 
of  notes  with  green  backs."  The  Divine  One  is,  on 
this  principle,  designated  by  one  of  his  attributes, 
"the  Almighty,"  "the  All-seeing,"  "the  Judge."  Man 
may  be  called  "the  erect  animal,"  "the  governor  of 
the  world ;"  the  lion,  "  the  king  of  beasts  ;"  the  ocean, 
"  the  great  deep."  That  which  inspires  passion  may 
be  called  by  the  name  of  the  passion,  as,  "  my  love,''1 
"  my  defense.11 

(3.)   Using  tfie  Genus  for  tiie  Species.  —  Of  course, 


MKTtiXYMIES.  85 

when  the  object  is  to  soften  an  impression,  a  precisely 
opposite  figure  may  be  employed:  naming  a  broader 
class,  or  genus,  for  the  narrower  class,  or  species. 

Instead  of  saying  that  a  man  was  executed,  we  may 
say  that  he  "  lost  his  life,"  or  "  expiated  his  crime  on 
the  gallows."  Instead  of  death,  we  may  use  the  word 
sleep.  "  He  rewarded  his  officers  with  honors,"  in- 
stead of  "  He  made  his  generals  princes  and  kings." 
This  is  often  called  Euphemism. 

(4.)  Using  the  Concrete  for  the  Abstract. — As  in  the 
following  instance:  "When  the  magistrate  was  com- 
pelled to  pronounce  condemnation  upon  his  own  son, 
the  father  was  subordinated  to  the  judge,  and  the  cul- 
prit found  no  mercy."  Here  "the  father"  is  put  for 
parental  affection,  and  "the  judge"  for  the  duty  of  a 
jiul 

The  philosophy  of  this  figure  is,  that  definite  ex- 
pressions are  more  forcible  than  indefinite.  It  is  more 
impressive  to  say,  "  Three-fourths  or  nine-tenths  of 
the  people  demand  this  change,"  than  to  say,  "A 
large  majority  desire  it."  Even  in  instances  where 
enumeration  is  impossible  similar  terms  are  employ- 
ed for  the  sake  of  a  vivid  impression.  "Ninety-nine 
hundredths  of  the  prosperity  of  this  people  is  due  to 
their  religion." 

METONYMIES  also  may  be  classified  as  follows : 

(1.)  The  Sign  for  the  Thing  signified. — Sword,  for 
war;  the  White  House,  for  the  office  of  President  of 
the  United  States;  the  epaulets,  for  military  office; 
red  tape,  for  the  difficulties  in  obtaining  the  comple- 
tion of  a  work  that  must  pass  the  inspection  of  sever- 


86 

al  officers ;  a  pen,  for  literature.  "  The  pen  is  mightier 
than  the  sword." 

(2.)  The  Container  for  the  Thing  contained.—"  The 
country  is  jealous  of  the  city."  "  The  army  yielded, 
but  the  navy  resisted."  "The  mountains  may  fail, 
but  the  prairies  will  pour  out  their  wealth." 

(3.)  A  Cause  may  be  put  for  an  Effect,  and  an  Effect 
for  a  Cause. — "  The  savage  desolation  of  war."  The 
cause  of  the  desolation  is  a  savage  spirit :  here  it  is 
transferred  to  the  effect. 

In  an  opposite  transference,  we  may  speak  of  pale 
death,  joyful  health,  &  proud  testimony.  This  is  some- 
times called  the  transferred  epithet. 

(4.)  A  Man  may  be  named  for  his  Works. — Thus  we 
speak  of  "  Shakspeare,"  meaning  his  writings,  "  Black- 
stone,"  meaning  his  work  on  law.  This  is  akin  to 
personification,  to  be  described  hereafter. 

Notice  the  tropes  italicized  in  the  following  sen- 
tences : 

"  Ye  grand  inventions  of  ancient  bards !  ye  gay  creations  of  mod- 
ern fancy !  ye  bright  visions !  ye  fervid  and  impassioned  thoughts  J 
e  all  for  no  better  purpose  than  the  pastime  of  a  single  hour? 
Ah !  not  so ;  not  so.  It  is  yours  to  stir  to  the  bottom  the  dull  and 
stagnant  souL  Ye  can  carry  man  out  of  himself,  and  make  him  feel 
his  kindred  with  his  whole  race.  Ye  can  teach  him  to  look  beyond 
external  nature  for  enjoyment.  Ye  rouse  him  from  the  deep  lethargy 
of  sense,  raise  him  above  the  worthless  thing  we  are,  and  reveal  to 
him  his  capacity  for  purer  purposes,  and  a  nobler  state  of  being." 

Comparisons  and  Metaphors  are  nearly  akin  to 
Tropes,  and,  after  their  examination,  further  direc- 
tions upon  the  use  of  them  all  will  be  given. 


87 


CHAPTER  II. 

COMPARISONS. 

13.  The  Foundation  of  Comparisons. — THE  first  re- 
sult of  careful  thought  is  the  classification  of  objects 
according  to  their  common  nature,  and  learning  the 
meaning  of  those  words  called  common  nouns.     The 
child  arrives  at  this  knowledge  gradually,  and  for  a 
time  is  inclined  to  call  all  men  "  father,"  and  if  he 
happens  to  have  become  acquainted  first  with  ahorse, 
to  call  all  quadrupeds  "  horse."     As  knowledge  in- 
creases, classification  becomes  more  minute.     Thus 
man  is  divided  into  Caucasian,  Malayan,  African. 

By  an  exercise  of  the  same  kind,  the  mind  takes 
notice  of  the  differences  of  individuals  that  can  not  be 
classified  together,  and  of  the  similarities  of  individu- 
als in  some  respects,  that  are  yet  so  different  in  oth- 
er respects  that  they  can  not  be  classified  together. 
When  the  attention  is  called  to  two  objects  that  are 
both  alike  in  some  particular,  and  unlike  in  others,  and 
the  likeness  is  pointed  out,  a  comparison  is  made. 

14.  Definition. — ^Comparison  is  the  likening  of  one 
object  to  another,  from  which  it  also  differs  in  so  many 
other  qualities  to  which  the  attention  is  not  directed, 
that  it  can  not  properly  be  said  to  belong  to  the  same 
class.  "* 


88  RHETORIC. 

15.  Comparisons  used  to  convey  Information. — Tbe_ 
first  object  of  comparisons  is  to  convey  information. 
Thus  :  "  Aluminum  is  a  metal  with  a  lustre  like  that 
of  silver  and  platinum."  This  describes  the  appear- 
ance of  aluminum  to  one  who  knows  the  appearance 
of  silver  and  platinum.  "The  soldiers  stood  like 
statues,  unmoved  by  the  cannons'  roar."  This  sim- 
ply describes  the  steady,  unmoved  position  of  the 
soldiers.  Nearly  all  speakers  whose  object  is  to  im- 
part information  make  frequent  use  of  comparisons. 

This  figure  of  speech,  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
though  in  reality  it  is  not  a  figure,  but  a  simple  state- 
ment of  a  similarity,  is  the  most  common  of  all  modes 
of  illustration,  and  every  writer  and  speaker  should 
study  its  nature  and  power.  We  give  a  few  speci- 
mens of  illustrative  comparisons,  to  show  the  beauty 
nii'l  impressiveness  of  this  kind  of  illustration. 

How  sublime  the  thought  in  Derzhavin's  address 
to  the  Deity  :  • 

"Yes,  in  my  spirit  doth  thy  Spirit  shine, 
As  shines  the  sunbeam  in  a  drop  of  dew." 

It  will  be  observed  that  comparisons  are  often  made 
without  the  use  of  such  terms  as  like,  so,  as,  or  any  oth- 
er terms  to  call  attention  to  them  as  comparisons.  It 
is  easy,  however,  to  see  that  a  comparison  of  two  or 
more  objects  is  made. 

"Before  the  curing  of  a  strong  disease, 
Even  in  the  instance  of  repair  and  health, 
The  fit  is  strongest;  *  *  *  Evils  that  take  leave, 
On  their  departure  most  of  all  show  evil." 

"  As  seeds  lie  dormant  in  the  earth  for  hundreds  of  years,  and  then 
when  brought  to  the  influence  of  air  and  light,  exhibit  their  vitality. 


USE   OF   COMPARISONS.  89 

so  the  germ  of  the  soul  may  lie  concealed  and  undeveloped  during 
the  whole  term  of  human  life." 

"  The  secret  which  the  murderer  possesses  soon  comes  to  possess 
him  ;  and  like  the  evil  spirits  of  which  we  read,  it  overcomes  him,  and 
leads  him  whithersoever  it  will." 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  explain  to  some  extent 
the  nature  of  the  object  with  which  the  comparison  is 
made.  The  following  from  Rev.  Dr.  Caird  is  impress- 
ive, but  expressed  in  too  many  words : 

"Just  as  in  winter  the  cold  may  become  so  intense  as  to  freox  •  flip 
thermometer,  and  thereby  to  leave  you  without  the  means  of  marking 
the  subsequent  increases  of  cold,  so  there  is  a  point  in  the  lowered 
temperature  of  the  inward  consciousness  where  the  growing  coldness, 
hardness,  selfishness  of  a  man's  nature  can  no  longer  be  noted — the 
meehani-m  by  which  moral  variations  arc  indicated  becoming  itself 
insensible  and  motionless." 

The  following  from  Macaulay,  in  a  plea  for  thor- 
ough study,  is  a  comparison  which  required  to  be  pre- 
ceded by  an  explanation,  the  interest  of  which  justifies 
its  length : 

"Rumford,  it  is  said,  proposed  to  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  a  scheme 
for  feeding  his  soldiers  at  a  much  cheaper  rate  than  formerly.  Hi^ 
plan  was  simply  to  compel  them  to  masticate  their  food  thoroughly. 
A  small  quantity  thus  eaten  would,  according  to  that  famous  project- 
or, a  fiord  more  sustenance  than  a  large  meal  hastily  devoured.  I  do 
not  know  how  Rurnford's  proposition  was  received ;  but  to  the  mind, 
I  believe,  it  will  be  found  more  nutritious  to  digest  a  page  than  to  de- 
vour a  volume.'' 

Comparisons  between  objects  entirely  different  in 
their  nature  often  please  the  mind  and  aid  the  memo- 
ry, as  in  the  instance :  "There  is  something  gratejuljn 
any  positive  opinion,  though  in  many  points  wrong, 
as  even  weeds  are  useful  that  grow  on  a  bank  of  sand." 

16.  Elevating  Comparisons,  and  the  Opposite. — Com- 


ItHETo, 

parisons  are  also  used  to  elevate  our  estimation  of  an 
object,  or  to  degrade  it. 

Byron,  describing  Henry  Kirke  White  as  losing  his 
life  by  excessive  study,  uses  a  comparison  that  gives 
an  exalted  conception  of  his  character : 

"  Oh,  what  a  noble  heart  was  here  undone, 
When  Science'  self  destroyed  her  favorite  son ! 
Twas  thine  own  genius  gave  the  final  blow, 
And  helped  to  plant  the  wound  that  laid  thee  low. 
So  the  struck  eagle,  stretched  upon  the  plain, 
No  more  through  rolling  clouds  to  soar  again, 
Viewed  his  own  feather  on  the  fatal  dart, 
Which  winged  the  shaft  that  quivered  in  his  heart : 
Keen  were  his  pangs,  but  keener  far  to  feel, 

ursed  the  pinion  which  impelled  the  steel; 
While  the  same  plumage  that  had  warmed  his  nest 
Drunk  the  last  life-drop  of  his  bleeding  breast." 

Comparisons  used  to  degrade  are  a  very  efficient 
weapon  with  which  to  attack  error  and  folly. 

"X would  be  a  powerful  preacher  if  he  did  not  drown  his 

thought  in  a  Dead  Sea  of  words.  You  don't  want  a  drove  of  oxen  to 
drag  a  cart-load  of  potatoes  on  a  smooth  road." 

"Skepticism  in  an  honest  and  thoughtful  young  man  is  like  the 
chicken-pox— very  apt  to  come,  but  not  dangerous,  and  soon  over, 
leaving  both  complexion  and  constitution  as  good  as  ever." 

"Toconsort  with  such  company  is  like  playing  with  pitch;  defile- 
ment is  sure  to  follow." 

Pope,  wishing  to  undervalue  man's  power  to  under- 
stand God  or  his  works,  wrote : 

"Superior  beings,  when  of  late  they  saw 
A  mortal  man  unfold  all  nature's  law, 
Admired  such  wisdom  in  an  earthly  shape, 
And  showed  a  Neioton  as  ice  show  an  ape." 

17.  Comparisons  Designed  simply  i<j  Jntwest. — Com- 
parisons are  used  simply  to  interest  and  please. 


ARGUMENT  AT  I  Yi:    GO2fPARI80NH.  91 

They  enliven  sober  composition,  and  render  im- 
pressive and  pleasing  truth  that  is  already  understood, 
and  which  will  not  be  denied.  Sir  William  Jones 
said :  "  Ignorance  is  to  the  mind  what  extreme  dark- 
ness is  to  the  nerves :  both  cause  an  uneasy  sensation ; 
and  we  naturally  love  knowledge  as  we  love  light, 
even  when  we  have  no  design  of  applying  either  to  a 
purpose  essentially  useful." 

Prescott  says:  "The  ocean,  stretched  between  us 
and  the  Old  World,  has  the  effect  of  time,  and  extin- 
guishes, or  at  least  cools,  hot  and  angry  feeli 

Such  comparisons  interest,  though  they  may  not 
instruct. 

The  relations  of  Comparison  to  Wit  and  to  Antith- 
esis will  be  shown  under  those  topics  respectively. 

18.  Argumentative  Comparisons. — Comparisons  are 
among  the  most  efficient  weapons  in  the  armory  of 
the_  debater.  Scarcely  ever  does  one  find  himself 
earnestly  attempting  to  prove  a  proposition,  without 
bringing  to  his  aid  illustrations  either  to  produce  con- 
viction or  to  show  more  impressively  his  own  mean- 
ing. Thus  Froude,  in  his  "History  of  England," 
makes  abundant  use  of  this  figure.  We  give  a  single 
example  from  him  of  a  comparison  dwelt  upon  and 
amplified: 

"There  are  many  scenes  in  human  life  which,  as  a  great  poet 
teaches  us,  are  either  sad  or  beautiful,  cheerless  or  refreshing,  accord- 
ing to  the  direction  from  which  we  approach  them.  If,  on  a  morning 
in  spring,  we  behold  the  ridges  of  a  fresh-turned  plowed  field  from 
their  northern  side,  our  eyes,  catching  only  the  shadowed  slopes  of 
the  successive  furrows,  see  an  expanse  of  white,  the  unmelted  re- 
mains of  the  night's  hailstorm  or  the  hoar-frost  of  the  dawn.  We 
make  a  circuit,  or  we  cross  over  and  look  behind  us,  and  on  the  very 


92  XUETuJil*'. 

same  ground  there  is  nothing  to  be  seen  but  the  rich  brown  soil 
.swelling  in  the  sunshine,  warm  with  promise,  and  checkered  perhaps 
here  and  there  with  a  green  blade  bursting  through  the  surface.  Both 
images  are  true  to  the  facts  of  nature.  Both  pictures  are  created  by 
real  objects  really  existing.  The  pleasant  certainty,  however,  re- 
mains with  us,  that  the  winter  is  passing  away  and  summer  is  coming ; 
the  promise  of  the  future  is  not  with  the  ice  and  the  sleet,  but  with 
the  sunshine,  with  gladness  and  hope." 

19.  Practical  Direction*  on  tic*  Use  of  Comparisons. — 
It  would  be  easy  to  gather  many  faulty  comparisons 
to  warn  the  student  against  prevalent  errors.  Let  the 
following  directions  be  observed : 

(1.)  The  objects  compared  must  be  alike  in  some 
respects  and  different  in  many  others,  and  the  greater 
both  the  likeness  and  difference  are,  the  more  pleas- 
ing will  the  comparison  be.  Let  it  be  said  that  "  Na- 
poleon, like  Caesar, -was  a  great  conqueror,  and-  the 
mind  is  not  pleased.  Napoleon  and  Caesar  were  too 
nearly  alike — both  generals,  both  emperors,  both  con- 
querors. But  let  it  be  said  Florence  Nightingale,  like 
Caesar,  was  a  great  conqueror ;  he  conquered  nations, 
she  prejudice  and  apathy ;  he  sacrificed,  and  she  - 
the  lives  of  thousands,  and  the  propriety  of  the  com- 
parison is  at  once  E 

(2.)  The  objects  with  which  the  comparison  is 
made  must  be  well  known,  and  if  any  explanation  is 
needed,  it  must  not  be  so  long,  or  so  interesting,  as  to 
divert  the  mind  from  the  principal  purpose  of  the 
author.  When  the  likeness  is  remote,  and  requi 
great  deal  of  study  to  be  perceived,  it  is  said  to  be  far- 
fetched, and  must  be  very  instructive  or  pleasing,  or 
it  will  be  condemned. 

The  following  from  Jean  Paul  Bichter,  like  many 


RULES    ON  COMPARISONS.  93 

others  by  the  same  author,  are  far-fetched,  and  yet 
their  impressiveness  when  understood  makes  them 
pleasing  and  allowable : 

"Life,  like  the  olive,  is  a  bitter  fruit;  then  grasp  both  with  the 
press,  and  they  will  afford  the  sweetest  oil. 

"Does  the  heaven  of  our  existence,  like  the  blue  one  over  our 
heads,  consist  of  mere  empty  air,  which,  when  near  to,  and  in  little, 
is  only  a  transparent  nothing,  and  which  only  in  the  distance  and  in 
grasp  becomes  blue  ether?" 

(3.)  Comparisons  must  be  elevating  or  degrading, 
according  to  their  purpose,  whether  it  be  to  honor  or 
debase. 

The  following  from  Horace  Greeley  utters  a  de- 
gree of  contempt  for  the  charge  which  it  repels : 

"  None  of  them  regarded  the  right  of  a  State  to  secede  from  the 
Union  as  more  defonsiblr  than  the  right  of  a  stave  to  secede  from 
the  cask  which  it  helps  to  form." 

(4.)  Comparisons  should  not  be  so  frequent  as  to 
weary  the  mind ;  for,  like  all  other  good  things,  they 
may  by  superabundance  become  deformities. 

(5.)  Comparisons  should  not  be  made  simply  from 
habit,  where  they  add  neither  information  nor  im- 
pressiveness to  what  has  already  been  said,  or  may  be 
better  said,  without  them. 

Common  as  this  figure  of  speech  is,  it  is  not  a  little 
remarkable  that  many  eminent  authors  have  made  no 
use  of  it  whatever.  In  the  celebrated  oration  of  De- 
mosthenes upon  the  Crown,  the  only  well-marked 
simile  is  the  following :  u  Like  a  winter  storm,  this 
whole  affair  came  down  upon  the  city." 


RHETORIC. 
EXERCISE. 

Let  the  student  examine  the  following  compari- 
sons, and  decide  whether  they  are  correct  or  faulty, 
and  whether  they  were  probably  used  to  illustrate, 
embellish,  elevate,  or  degrade. 

"  I  have  ventured, 

Like  little  wanton  boys  that  swim  on  Madders, 
Tins  many  summers  in  a  sea  of  glory. 

live  she  had  to  attend  her  colleague,  a  hateful  old  toad-eater, 
as  illiterate  as  a  chamber-maid,  as  proud  as  a  whole  German  chap- 
ter." 

"  The  project  of  mending  a  bad  world,  by  teaching  people  to  give 
new  names  to  old  things,  reminds  us  of  Walter  Shandy's  scheme  for 
compensating  the  loss  of  his  son's  nose  by  christening  him  Trisme- 
gistus." 

"The  public  mind  in  our  country  resembles  the  sea  when  the  tide 
is  rising.  Each  successive  wave  rushes  forward,  breaks  and  rolls 
back ;  but  the  great  flood  is  steadily  coming  on." 

"  True  art  has  nothing  to  do  with  such  ephemeral  and  local  affairs 
as  Poor  Laws  and  Poor  Law  Boards;  and  whenever  art  tries  to 
serve  such  a  double  purpose,  it  is  like  an  egg  with  two  yolks — nei- 
ther is  over  hatched." 

"Curses,  like  chickens,  always  come  home  to  roost." 

"  She  never  told  her  love, 
But  let  concealment,  like  a  worm  in  the  bud, 
Feed  on  her  damask  cheek.     She  pined  in  thought, 
And  with  a  green  and  yellow  melancholy, 
She  sat,  like  Patience  on  a  monument, 
Smiling  at  grief." 

"True  friendship  is  like  sound  health;  the  value  of  it  is  seldom 
known  until  it  is  lost." 

"  The  music  of  Carryl,  like  the  memory  of  joys  that  are  past,  was 
pleasant  and  mournful  to  the  soul." 


ALLUSIONS.  95 


CHAPTER  III. 

ALLUSIONS. 

20.  Definition. — AN  Allusion  is  an  implied  Com- 
parison.     Any  fact,  character,  object,  or  choice  ex- 
pression, supposed  by  a  speaker  to  be  well  known  to 
his  hearers,  may  be  alluded  to,  without  being  fully  de- 
scribed, in  such,  a  way  as  to  add  force  or  beauty  to 
the  thought  which  he  wishes  to  express.     Thus  allu- 
sions are  illimitable  in  number  and  variety  in  modern 
literature. 

Allusions  may  vary  in  perspicuity,  from  such  clear 
statements  of  likeness  as  to  be  almost  like  formal 
comparisons,  to  such  indistinct  references  as  to  be 
noticed  only  by  persons  of  quick  perception  who  are 
thoroughly  familiar  with  the  subject  alluded  to. 

21.  Scriptural  Allusions. — The  most  frequently  used 
are  Scriptural  allusions,  or  references  to  some  pas- 
sage, description,  or  thought  in  the  Bible.     A  modern 
writer  relates  a  fancied  dream  in  which  the  Bible  was 
annihilated;  such  an  annihilation — if  it  should  carry 
all  Scriptural  quotations  and  allusions  with  it — would 
make  fearful  chasms  in  the  books  of  all  modern  nations; 
indeed,  except  a  few  works  purely  scientific,  it  would 
scarcely  leave  a  complete  book  in  the  Christian  world ! 

Patrick  Henry,  in  his  oft-quoted  eloquent  speech, 
exclaimed  :  "  Gentlemen  may  cry  Peace,  Peace,  when 


96  RHETORIC. 

there  is  no  peace !"  Was  he  not  thinking  of  what 
he  had  often  heard  from  Jeremiah  vi.  14 — "They 
have  healed  also  the  hurt  of  the  daughter  of  my  peo- 
ple slightly,  saying,  Peace,  Peace,  when  there  is  no 
peace?" 

Take  another  example  from  the  writings  of  a  cler- 
gyman : 

11  Each  one  is  sent  to  teach  us  something,  and  all  together  they  have 
a  lesson  which  is  beyond  the  power  of  any  to  tench  alone.  But  if 
they  come  together,  we  should  break  down,  and  learn  nothing.  The 
smoking  flax  would  be  put  out" 

Reference  here  is  made  to  an  expression  of  Isaiah 
— "  The  smoking  flax  shall  he  not  quench." 

'•  Mi-  iv."  says  Goethe,  "  becomes  as  prosaic  and  familiar  to  me 
ns  my  own  hearth,  but  nevertheless  I  do  not  let  go  my  idea,  and  will 
wrestle  with  the  unknown  angel,  even  should  I  halt  upon  my  thigh." 

Those  who  remember  the  story  of  Jacob  and  the 
angel,  as  related  in  the  thirty -second  chapter  of  Gene- 
sis, perceive  the  force  of  this  allusion. 

The  Bible  is  an  inexhaustible  fountain,  not  only 
of  thought  but  of  expressions,  which  may  be  em- 
ployed with  a  great  variety  of  signification,  added  to 
the  associations  of  their  original  meaning,  and  of  the 
times  and  places  in  which  they  have  been  heard.  It 
indicates,  however,  a  poor  and  depraved  taste  to  use 
Scriptural  allusions  in  such  a  way  as  to  clothe  Bible 
language  with  incongruous  associations,  or  to  offend 
religious  feelings. 

22.  Classical  Allusions. — What  are  called  classical 
allusions  are  common  in  writers  who  have,  or  pretend 
to  have,  read  carefully  the  best  works  in  the  Greek  and 


CLASSICAL   ALLUSIONS.  97 

Latin  languages.  As  these  have  for  some  centuries 
been  studied  by  learned  men,  it  is  assumed  that  all 
scholars  are  familiar  with  them,  and  thus  facts  and 
expressions  are  used  as  illustrations,  or 

"To  point  a  moral  or  adorn  a  tale." 

"The  inundation  of  lawless  power,"  said  Robert  Hall,  "after 
covering  the  rest  of  Europe,  threatens  England ;  and  we  are  exactly, 
most  critically  placed  in  the  only  aperture  where  it  can  be  success- 
fully repelled,  in  the  Thermopylae  of  the  universe." 

Who  has  not  heard  of  the  brave  Leonidas  and  the 
three  hundred  Spartans  with  him,  who  at  the  narrow 
defile  of  Thermopylae  resisted,  till  the  last  one  fell, 
the  torrents  of  Persians  who  attempted  to  force  a  pas- 
sage through  ? 

"Tne  railway  and  telegraph,"  says  Dr.  D.  D.  Whedon,  "are 
breaking  up  the  hostile  demarcations  which  once  divided  and  in- 
flamed mankind — and  so  winy-footed  Mercury  is  tearing  vp  old  Ter- 
minus. " 

Mercury  was  the  message-bearer,  or  errand-boy, 
of  the  gods;  Terminus  defended  "the  ancient  land- 
marks which  the  fathers  had  set." 

There  is  a  classical  allusion  in  the  following  good 
advice  given  to  Gil  Bias,  by  the  ingenious  author  of 
that  work : 

"You  may  meet  with  people  inclined  to  divert  themselves  with 
your  credulity,  but  don't  be  duped,  nor  believe  yourself,  though  they 
should  swear  it,  the  eiyhth  wonder  offhe  world." 

This  evidently  alludes  to  a  favorite  notion  of  the 
ancients  that  the  world  had  only  seven  great  wonders, 
which  they  enumerated. 

23.  Miscellaneous  Allusions.  —  Good  speakers  and 
writers  often  make  allusions  to  writings  which  every 

E 


98  RHETORIC. 

well-informed  person  is  presumed  to  have  read,  such 
as  "  Pilgrim's  Progress,''  "^Esop's  Fables,"  "  The  Ara- 
bian Nights'  Entertainments,"  "  Plutarch's  Lives,"  and 
the  leading  events  of  history. 

Allusions  may  be  made  to  customs,  to  phrases,  to 
science,  to  almost  every  known  object  of  thought,  and 
often  they  are  understood  by  only  a  few  who.  hear 
them. 

Dr.  Bushnell,  in  a  lecture  before  a  learned  assem- 
bly, said : 

"  The  universities  will  be  filled  with  a  profound  spirit  of  religion, 

and  the  bcnc  orasse  will  be  a  fountain  of  inspiration." 

i 

Who  could  understand  that  who  did  not  know 
that  Luther's  favorite  motto  was  "  Bene  orasse  est 
bene  studuisse;"  that  is,  "To  have  prayed  well  is  to 
have  studied  well  ?" 

Fuller,^!!  describing  an  elegant  writer,  says : 

"  He  was  excellent  at  the  flat  hand  of  rhetoric,  which  gives  rather 
pats  than  blows ;  but  he  could  not  bend  his  fist  to  dispute." 

This  has  special  force  to  one  reminded  of  the  re- 
mark of  Cicero,  that  Zeno  compared  Rhetoric  and 
Logic  respectively  to  the  flat  hand  and  the  fist* 

Some  allusions  are  exceedingly  beautiful,  because 
they  suggest  a  new  meaning  to  old  expressions.  Thus 
Longfellow,  describing  a  tract  of  country  troubled 
with  insects  because  the  people  had  killed  the  birds, 
says : 

"  Devoured  by  worms,  like  Herod,  was  the  town, 
Because,  like  Herod,  it  had  ruthlessly 
Slaughtered  the  Innocents." 

*  Cicero,  de  Oratorc,  lib.  xxxii. 


MISCELLANEOUS   ALLUSIONS.  99 

Few  need  to  be  informed  that  one  Herod  caused 
to  be  slaughtered  the  babes  of  Bethlehem,  commonty 
called  "The  Slaughter  of  the  Innocents;"  another 
Herod  died  a  miserable  death,  being  "  devoured  by 
worms ;"  and  all  see  how  beautifully  the  poet  has 
given  a  new  meaning  to  those  expressions. 

"When  I  think," says  Carlyle,  "that  Music  is  condemned  to  be 
mad,  and  to  burn  herself  on  such  a  funeral  pile,  your  celestial  opera- 
house  grows  dark." 

Here  allusion  is  made  to  the  old  Hindoo  custom 
of  suttee,  or  of  the  voluntary  burning  of  the  widow 
on  the  funeral  pile  of  her  husband. 

How  pleasant  is  the  allusion  to  Dr.  Franklin's 
discovery  of  the  identity  of  electricity  and  lightning 
by  Thomas  Hood,  in  a  poem  on  the  pleasures  of  child- 
hood 1  It  seems  also  that  in  childhood  he  "  wrote 
compositions :" 

"  My  kite — how  fast  and  far  it  flies ! 
While  I,  a  sort  of  Franklin,  drew 

My  pleasure  from  the  sky  ! 
Twas  papered  o'er  with  studious  themes, 
The  tasks  I  wrote — my  present  dreams 

Will  never  soar  so  high." 

So  grave  a  historian  as  Merivale  draws  an  illus- 
tration from  pugilism  when  he  represents  Eome  as 
"  squaring  with  the  world."* 

Webster,  in  his  beautiful  description  of  the  Bunker 
Hill  Monument,  says : 

"  Nor  does  the  rising  sun  cause  tones  of  music  to  issue  from  its 
summit." 

*  Merivnle's  History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire  (London, 
1862,  vol.  vii.  p.  380). 


loo  RHETORIC. 

Who  would  suppose  that  the  sun  would  evoke 
music  out  of  a  pile  of  stone,  had  he  not  heard  of  the 
famous  statue  of  Memnon  in  Egypt,  of  which  Herodo- 
tus relates  that  the  rays  of  the  morning  sun  evoked 
music  from  the  rock  ? 

But  we  must  end  these  illustrations,  for  we  find 
their  supply 

"  Thick  as  the  autumnal  leaves  that  strew  the  brooks 
Of  Vallombrosa." 

2-i.  The  Innuendo. — What  has  been  called  Innuen- 
do, or  Insinuation,  falls  properly  under  the  head  of 
Allusion.  It  is  however  generally  confined  to  ob- 
scure allusions  to  objects  or  facts  that  tend  to  lower 
our  estimation  of  the  person  or  sentiment  which  we 
are  describing. 

Thus  Burke,  in  his  celebrated  speech  on  American 
taxation,  described  General  Conway  as  having  be- 
friended Americans  by  a  motion  in  Parliament,  but 
intimated  that  he  was  now  betraying  their  cause  for  a 
bribe. 

"All  England,  all  America  joined  in  his  applause.  'Hope  ele- 
vated, and  joy  brightened  his  crest.'  I  stood  near  him  ;  and  his  face, 
to  use  the  expression  of  the  Scripture  of  the  first  martyr,  '  his  face 
was  as  it  had  been  the  face  of  an  angel.'  I  do  not  know  how  others 
feel,  but  if  I  had  stood  in  that  situation,  I  never  would  have  ex- 
changed it  for  all  that  kings  in  their  profusion  could  bestow.1' 

The  covert  meaning  of  the  last  expression  is  evi- 
dent. 

25.  Pedantic  Allusions.  —  Some  allusions  are  so 
learned  as  to  be  justly  termed  pedantic,  unless  there 
is  good  reason  to  believe  that  the  persons  addressed 
are  familiar  with  the  subject 


/,' r /,  A'S    ON  ALLUSIOS*.  101 

26.  Practical  Directions.  —  The  following  practical 
directions  on  this  subject  should'  be,  observe^  ;•  : 

(1.)  Let  the  allusion  spring  up  spontaneously  from 
a  thought  in  the  mind,  and  not  be  laboriously  scvzg'ht 
by  consulting  a  cyclopaedia  simply  for  the  occasion. 

(2.)  Let  the  allusion  be  appropriate,  and  really  add 
force  or  beauty  to  the  sentiment. 

(3.)  Let  it  be  suited  to  the  occasion,  and  be  drawn 
from  subjects  familiar  to  the  persons  addressed,  and 
not  degrade  nor  elevate  the  sentiment  inappropriately. 

(4.)  If  it  is  obscure,  interpose  a  word  of  explana- 
tion so  that  it  may  be  understood. 

Abundant  information,  a  prerequisite  to  genuine 
eloquence,  will  exhibit  itself  largely  in  comparisons 
and  allusions. 


102  RHETORIC. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

METAPHORS. 

27.  Definitions  and  Examples. — A  METAPHOR  is  an 
implied  comparison.  One  great  source  of  the  power 
of  a  metaphor  is  its  condensation. 

Every  trope  may  be  regarded  as  a  metaphor,  but 
there  are  metaphors  that  can  not  be  called  tropes.  A 
trope  consists  of  a  single  expression,  a  metaphor  may 
consist  of  many  words. 

In  a  metaphor  the  words— whether  used  literally 
or  not — actually  suggest  a  conception  different  from 
their  original  signification.  In  a  trope  one  word  is 
used  in  a  figurative  sense ;  in  a  metaphor  the  idea  ex- 
pressed by  the  whole  sentence  is  to  be  understood  in 
a  figurative  sense. 

The  sentence  "  Sin,  though  sometimes  sweet,  is  al- 
ways bitter,"  contains  two  tropes,  sweet  and  bitter  being 
used  out  of  their  natural  sense.  But  Dr.  South,  speak- 
ing of  sin,  says  :  "  Sin  is  bitter-sweet ;  the  fine  colors 
of  the  serpent  by  no  means  make  amends  for  the  poi- 
son of  his  sting." 

This  last  sentence,  though  true  literally,  is  also 
true  figuratively,  and  it  is  the  figurative  sense  attach- 
ed to  it  that  makes  it  a  metaphor.  In  this  sense  it 
means  that,  just  as  the  fine  colors  of  a  serpent  will  not 


NATURE    OF   METAPHORS.  103 

make  amends  for  the  poison  of  his  sting,  so  the  pleas- 
ures of  sin  will  not  recompense  for  its  punishment. 

28.  Metaphors  resolvable  into  Comparisons. — Every 
metaphor  may  be  resolved  into  a  comparison,  but  the 
use  of  a  metaphor  does  not  always  imply  a  clear  con- 
ception of  the  comparison. 

The  analogy  or  likeness  between  two  things  or  ac- 
tions may  be  so  striking  that  the  language  which  lit- 
erally describes  the  first  may  also  suggest  the  second, 
and  a  man  may  use  the  language  to  describe  the  sec- 
ond, without  having  any  thought  of  the  first.  When 
one  says,  "  The  sun  has  retired  to  rest  for  the  night," 
the  hearer  may  not  think  that,  "as  a  weary  man  re- 
tires to  his  bed,  so  the  sun  has  disappeared  in  the 
west,"  but  he  would  simply  think — the  sun  has. set. 

"Petrarch  relighted  the  torch  of  ancient  learning." 
Here  is  presented  the  idea  of  a  man  lighting  a  torch 
that  had  been  extinguished :  as  it  is  a  "  torch  of  an- 
cient learning,"  we  think  of  Petrarch  as  studying, 
editing,  and  publishing  the  writings  of  the  Greek  and 
Roman  authors,  which  had  been  for  some  time  forgot- 
ten, till  he  brought  them  once  more  to  public  notice. 

Generally,  when  a  metaphor  is  used,  the  meaning 
of  it  is  easily  perceived  without  the  necessity  of  resolv- 
ing it  into  a  formal  comparison,  and  without  any  con- 
sciousness that  it  implies  a  comparison. 

An  illustration  of  the  condensation  of  a  comparison 
into  a  metaphor  is  given  by  Spence,  as  follows :  "As, 
in  passing  through  the  crystal,  beams  of  white  light 
are  decomposed  into  the  colors  of  the  rainbow,  so,  in 
traversing  the  soul  of  the  poet,  the  colorless  rays  of 


104  BHSTOBIC, 

truth,  arc  transformed  into  brightly-tinted  poetry." 
Condensed  into  a  metaphor,  it  becomes  :  "The  white 
light  of  truth,  in  traversing  the  many-sided  transparent 
soul  of  the  poet,  is  refracted  into  iris-hued  poetry." 

29.  Examples  of  Metaphors. — The  following  is  from 
the  speech  of  Daniel  Webster  at  the  laying  of  the  cor- 
ner-stone of  Bunker  Hill  Monument,  June  17, 1825 : 

••  When  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  was  fought,  the  existence  of 
South  America  was  scarcely  felt  in  the  civilized  world.  Borne  down 
by  colonial  subjugation,  monopoly,  and  bigotry,  those  regions  of  the 
South  we.re  hardly  visible  above  the  horizon.  But  in  our  day  there 
has  been,  as  it  were,  a  new  creation.  The  southern  hemisphere  emer- 
ges from  the  sea.  Its  lofty  mountains  begin  to  lift  themselves  into 
the  light  of  heaven  ;  its  broad  and  fertile  plains  stretch  out  in  beauty 
to  the  eye  of  civilized  man,  and  at  the  mighty  bidding  of  the  voice  of 
political  liberty  the  waters  of  darkness  retire." 

The  following  is  a  good  metaphor  from  the  writings 
of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Bethune : 

"The  giant,  man,  long  crushed  by  usurpers  of  divine  right,  is  fling- 
ing off  the  Etna  from  his  mangled  breast.  His  limbs  are  not  yet 
drawn  from  under  the  quaking,  and  groaning,  fire-spouting  mass." 

Rev.  Dr.  Olin  said : 

"Into  this  turbid  maelstrom  (party  strife),  from  which  virtue  and 
conscience  never  come  forth  without  a  stain,  good  but  ambitious  men, 
of  facile  morality  and  feeble  purposes,  are  ever  ready  to  plunge." 

Rev.  Dr.  A.  P.  Stanley,  speaking  of  the  Bible,  says : 

"  The  Psalter  alone,  by  its  manifold  applications  and  uses  in  after 
times,  is  a  vast  palimpsest,*  written  over  and  over  again,  illuminated, 
illustrated,  by  every  conceivable  incident  and  emotion  of  men  and  of 
nations :  battles,  wanderings,  dangers,  escapes,  death-beds,  obsequies, 
of  many  ages  and  countries,  rise,  or  may  rise,  to  our  view,  as  we 
read  it.'' 

*  A  parchment  written  over  the  second  time,  with  the  first  writing 
not  erased. 


EMPLOY  MtiXT    OF  METAPHORS.  105 

30.  The  Object  of  Metaphors,  and  when  they  should  be 
employed.  —  The  object  of  metaphors  is  to  express 
thought  that  plain  language  can  not  express,  and  also 
to  express  thought  and  emotion  more  forcibly  and 
impressively  than  literal  language  can  express  them. 

Metaphors  should  be  suited  both  in  frequency  and 
character  to  the  nature  of  the  subject  treated.  In 
a  strictly  didactic  or  scientific  writing,  the  frequent 
use  of  metaphors  would  be  improper  and  offensive. 
In  such  a  work  as  "Locke's  Essay  on  the  Human 
Understanding"  no  striking  metaphors  are  found, 
while  the  tropes  employed  are  usually  those  which 
had  become  so  common  as  not  to  attract  attention  as 
figurative  language.  Statutes,  deeds,  wills,  and  all 
legal  documents,  in  which  precision  is  of  the  utmost 
consequence,  should  avoid  metaphorical  language. 
In  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the  style  of 
which  is  eminently  suited  to  its  gravity  and  value,  a 
few  common  tropes  occur,  but  not  a  single  metaphor. 
Metaphors  in  such  a  paper  would  betray  a  want  of 
high  culture  and  of  correct  taste  in  its  writer. 

In  narratives  they  are  proper,  particularly  when  any 
thoughts  of  more  than  ordinary  consequence  are  pre- 
sented, or  when  excitement  or  passion  is  represented. 

Historians  use  them  to  impart  vivacity  to  style. 
A  striking  conception  is  thus  presented  by  Gibbon  : 

"  Instead  of  a  statue  cast  in  a  single  mould  by  the  hand  of  an  art- 
ist, the  works  of  Justinian  represent  a  tessellated  pavement  of  an- 
tique and  costly  fragments." 

The  following  is  a  good  metaphor  from  Bancroft's 
"History  of  the  United  States:" 
E2 


H'O 

"  It  was  in  self-defense  that  Puritanism  in  America  began  those 
transient  persecutions  of  which  the  excess  shall  find  in  me  no  apolo- 
gist ;  and  which  yet  were  no  more  than  a  train  -of  mists  hoverinp,  of 
an  autumn  morning,  over  the  channel  of  a  fine  river,  that  diffused 
freshness  and  fertility  wherever  it  wound." 

31.  Metaphors  in  Oratory. — In  oratory,  when  the 
object  of  the  speaker  is  to  interest  and  excite  emotion, 
metaphor  is  peculiarly  appropriate.  Here  it  breathes 
its  native  air,  and  hurries  the  hearer  with  it  through 
beautiful  landscapes,  and  amid  various  treasures.  The 
most  celebrated  orations  in  ancient  and  modern  times 
produced  much  of  their  effect  by  the  judicious  use  of 
metaphors.* 

Demosthenes,  in  one  of  his  orations  against  Philip, 
exclaimed : 

"He  is  the  deadly  enemy  of  the  whole  city,  and  of  the  very  ground 
it  stands  on." 

11  City  "  here  is  a  trope  for  the  inhabitants  of  the 
city,  and  "  the  very  ground  it  stands  on,"  suggests 
that  his  hatred  was  so  intense  and  unreasonable  that 
he  would  destroy  all  the  people,  irrespective  of  their 
individual  character. 

Brougham,  speaking  of  ancient  oratory,  describes 
it  beautifully  by  a  metaphor : 

"The  mighty  flood  of  speech  rolls  on  in  a  channel  ever  full,  but 
which  never  overflows.  Whether  it  rushes  in  a  torrent  of  allusions,  or 
moves  along  in  a  majestic  exposition  of  enlarged  principles,  descends 

*  This  is  not  so  true  of  ancient  as  of  modern  orations  on  the  aver- 
age, and  is  not  so  true  of  Demosthenes  as  of  Cicero.  It  has  been  said 
that  Demosthenes  never  used  figures.  This  is  not  strictly  true,  but 
it  is  evident  that  logic  and  earnestness,  not  poetry,  were  the  chief 
olements  of  his  power. 


RICHNESS    OF  METAPHORS.  107 

hoarse  and  headlong  in  overwhelming  invective,  or  gtides  melodious 
in  narrative  and  description,  or  spreads  itself  out  shining  in  illustra- 
tion, its  course  is  ever  onward  and  entire — never  scattered,  never 
stagnant,  never  sluggish." 

This  is  an  extravagant  statement,  but  a  forcible 
metaphor. 

Modern  far  surpasses  ancient  oratory  in  abundance, 
appropriateness,  and  richness  of  metaphor. 

How  expressive,  for  instance,  was  the  language  of 
Grattan  in  pleading  for  Irish  rights ! 

"I  wish  for  nothing  but  to  breathe  in  this  our  island,  in  common 
with  my  fellow-subjects,  the  air  of  liberty.  I  never  will  be  satisfied 
so  long  as  the  meanest  cottager  in  Ireland  has  a  link  of  the  British 
chain  clanking  to  bis  rags.  Though  great  men  apostatize,  yet  the 
cause  will  live;  and  though  the  public  speaker  should  die,  yet  the 
immortal  fire  shall  outlast  the  organ  which  conveyed  it,  nnd  the  , 
breath  of  liberty,  like  the  word  of  the  holy  man,  will  not  die  with  the 
prophet,  but  survive  him." 

Notice  also  one  of  the  expressions  of  Daniel  Web- 
ster on  Bunker  Hill : 

•'*  That  motionless  shaft"  [the  monument]  "will  be  the  most  pow- 
erful of  speakers.  Its  speech  will  be  of  civil  and  religious  liberty.  It 
will  speak  of  patriotism  and  of  courage.  It  will  speak  of  the  moral 
improvement  and  elevation  of  mankind.  Decrepit  age  will  lean 
against  its  base,  and  ingenuous  youth  gather  round  it,  and  speak  to 
each  other  of  the  glorious  events  with  which  it  is  connected,  and  ex- 
claim, *  Thank  God,  I  also  am  an  American !' " 

32.  Metaphors  multiply  the  Meanings  of  Words. — 
Metaphors,  like  tropes,  to  which  they  are  as  closely^ 
allied  in  principle,  multiply  the  meanings  of  words. 

A  language,  therefore,  which  embraces  but  few 
terms  must  abound  in  metaphors,  if  the  speakers  at- 
tempt to  express  a  great  variety  of  thoughts.  Meta- 
phors that  arise  from  poverty  of  words  are  not  so 


108 

much  ornaments  as  an  indispensable  part  of  composi- 
tion, and,  by  frequent  repetition,  lose  all  their  figura- 
tive power.  This  is  the  reason  why  speakers  among 
uncultivated,  uncivilized  peoples,  make  frequent  use 
of  metaphors,  though  they  are  always  found  to  be 
absolutely  few  and  often  repeated.*  The  North  Amer- 
ican Indians,  for  instance,  have  a  small  number  of 
metaphors,  which  they  frequently  employ,  because 
they  are  ignorant  of  words  that  would  definitely  ex- 
press their  thoughts. 

33.  Cautions  upon  die  Use  of  Metaphors. — The  fol- 
lowing cautions  on  this  subject  will  be  found  useful  to 
writers : 

(1.)  The  sense  should  not  be  sacrificed  tojhe  sound 
in  the  use  of  metaphors.  This  is  a  common  fault  of 
feeble  writers,  who  display  often  much  tinsel  and  little 
thought.  The  following  is  an  example : 

"  But  who  dare  claim  kindred  with  Ezekiel,  the  severe,  the  mystic, 
the  unfathomable,  the  lonely,  whose  hot,  hurried  breath  we  feel  ap- 
proaching ns  like  the  breath  of  a  furnace  ?  Perhaps  the  eagle  may, 
for  his  eye  was  as  keen  and  fierce  as  hers.  Perhaps  the  lion  may,  for 
his  voice,  too,  sounded  vast  and  hollow  on  the  wilderness  wind.  Per- 
haps the  wild  ass  may,  for  his  step  was,  like  hers,  uncontrollable.  The 
comparison  of  a  comet,  often  used,  generally  wasted,  is  strikingly  ap- 
plicable to  Ezekiel.  Sharp,  distinct,  yet  nebulous,  swift,  sword-shaped, 

*  "The  metaphor  arose  as  evidently  from  rusticity  of  conception,  as 
the  pleonasm  from  the  want  of  words.  The  first  simple  apes,  uncul- 
tivated, and  immerged  in  sense,  could  express  their  rude  conceptions 
of  abstract  ideas,  and  the  reflex  operations  of  the  mind,  only  by 
material  images,  which,  so  applied,  became  metnj>hors.  This,  and 
not  the  warmth  of  a  florid  and  improved  fancy,  as  is  commonly  sup- 
posed, was  the  true  original  of  figurative  expression"  (Archbishop 
Warburton's  Divine  Legation  of  Moses,  book  iv.  sect.  4). 

This  fact  was  stated  also  by  Cicero  (De  Oratore,  capnt.  xxiv.), 
and  i-^  now  universally  acknowledged. 


METAPlKHi*    A  M  I'l.lb'l A7>  109 

blood-red,  he  hangs  in  the  Old  Testament  sky,  rather  burning  as  a 
portent  than  shining  as  a  prophet." 

A  continued  succession  of  metaphors  is  wearisome. 
They  are  a  dinner  made  up  wholly  of  spices.  They 
are  pompous  ceremonials  employed  in  every-day  life. 
The  ablest  writers  and  strongest  speakers  use  them 
sparingly,  and  often  give  us  hours  of  speaking  or  many 
pages  of  writing,  without  arty  metaphors  but  ordinary 
tropes. 

(2.)  Metaphors  should  not  generally  be  dwelt  upon 
long,  and  run  out  into  comparisons,  or  too  minutely 
amplified. 

:•«!  Brougham  illustrates,  by  his  own  fault,  the 
practice  of  undue  amplification,  which  he  condemns  as 
follows : 

"  In  nothing,  not  even  in  beauty  of  collocation  and  harmony  of 
rhythm,  is  the  vast  superiority  of  the  chaste,  vigorous,  manly  style  of 
the  Greek  orators  and  writers  more  conspicuous  than  in  the  abstinent 
use  of  their  prodigious  powers  of  expression.  A  single  phrase — some- 
times a  word — and  the  work  is  done  ;  the  desired  impression  is  made, 
as  it  were,  with  one  stroke,  there  being  nothing  superfluous  interposed 
to  weaken  the  blow  or  break  its  fall.  The  commanding  idea  is  singled 
out;  it  is  made  to  stand  forward  ;  all  auxiliaries  are  rejected :  as  the 
Emperor  Napoleon  selected  one  point  in  the  heart  of  his  adversary's 
strength,  and  brought  all  his  power  to  bear  upon  that,  careless  of  the 
other  points,  which  he  was  sure  to  carry  if  he  won  the  centre,  as  sure 
to  have  carried  in  vain  if  he  left  the  centre  unsubdued.  Far  other- 
wise do  modern  writers  make  their  onsef.  They  resemble  those  cam- 
paigners who  fit  out  twenty  little  expeditions  at  a  time,  to  be  a  laugh- 
ing-stock if  they  fail,  and  useless  if  they  succeed  ;  or  if  they  do  at- 
tack in  the  right  place,  so  divide  their  forces,  from  the  dread  of  leav- 
ing any  one  point  unassailed,  that  they  can  make  no  sensible  im- 
pressing where  alone  it  avails  them  to  be  felt.  It  seems  the  prin- 
ciple of  such  authors  never  to  leave  any  thing  unsaid  that  can  be  said 
on  any  one  topic ;  to  run  down  every  idea  they  start ;  to  let  nothing 
pass;  to  leave  nothing  to  the  reader,  but  harass  him  with  anticipating 
every  thing  that  could  possibly  strike  his  mind," 


110 

Had  the  orator  omitted  superfluous  expressions,  he 
would  have  imitated  what  he  eulogized,  and  given  us 
the  substance  of  the  above  in  less  than  one-fourth  of  the 
words.  The  beauty,  however,  of  his  own  expressions 
shows  that  not  always  his  advice,  but  sometimes  his 
example,  should  be  followed. 

Sometimes  a  metaphor  may  be  dwelt  upon  and  am- 
plified with  good  effect  s#  as  to  resemble  an  allegory, 
from  which  it  differs  then  only  in  the  fact  that  the  in- 
terest is  confined  to  the  metaphorical  idea.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  good  illustration  from  the  pen  of  Professor 
Peter  Bayne : 

"Born  into  the  world  in  ignorance,  man  is  impelled  by  an  impe- 
rious instinct  to  know.  '  Seek,'  whispers  a  voice  in  his  soul,  'and 
thou  shall  find  ?'  He  seeks,  he  observes,  he  inquires.  He  ascends  the 
mountain  of  knowledge — rugged,  precipitous ;  he  climbs  with  diffi- 
culty from  crag  to  crag  ;  on  the  topmost  peak,  in  the  clear  evening 
of  an  intellectual  life,  he  beholds,  not  the  sterile  boundaries  of  a  uni- 
verse explored,  but  an  ocean  of  knowledge  yet  to  be  traversed— a 
Pacific  of  truth  stretching  on  and  on  into  the  deeps  of  eternity.  The 
fascination  of  that  placid  splendor  is  as  great  upon  him  as  when  he 
j.ired  to  know.  lie  yearns  fo  begin  a  new  voyage.  He  looks 
into  the  eyes  of  his  fellows  with  a  '  dumb  surmise '  of  endless  progress, 
and  limitless  attainment,  and  hope  sublime.  The  promise-whisper 
of  his  infancy  has  not  deceived  him  ;  he  has  upon  earth  made  some 
onward  steps,  and  tasted  of  the  ecstasy  of  knowledge ;  his  eyes  have 
been  opened,  and  life  has  taught  him  that  there  is  an  infinite  to  be 
known.  And  now  that  transporting  whisper  is  once  more  at  his  ear, 
4  What  thou  knowest  not  now  thou  shall  know  hereafter.'  Mind,  the 
angel  of  the  universe,  ready  to  soar  out  of  the  mists  of  the  earth, 
prunes  her  wings  for  everlasting  flight.  The  instincl  which  forbids 
her  to  close  her  pinions  and  to  die  has  been  veracious  for  time,  and 
it  is  justly  trusted  for  eternity." 

Such  well-sustained  metaphors  are  often  exceeding- 
ly beautiful  and  impressive,  and  it  would  be  indeed 
hypercritical  to  condemn  them. 


MIXED   METAPHORS.  Ill 

(3.)  Incongrnous_metaphors  should  not  be  employ- 
ed, except  when  strong  passion  will  justify  them. 

It  has  been  maintained  that  no  metaphor  should  be 
used  that  is  not  capable  of  being  presented  in  a  pic- 
ture. This  is  too  rigid.  Shakspeare,  in  one  of  his 
most  celebrated  passages,  has  the  following : 

/"  Whether  'tis  nobler  in  the  mind  to  suffer 
The  stings  and  arrows  of  outrageous  fortune, 
/  Or  td  take  arms  against  a  sea  of  troubles, 

And,  by  opposing,  end  them  ?" 

The  "  taking  arms  against  a  sea "  has  been  con- 
demned by  some  who  were  too  cool  and  hypercritic- 
al to  see  the  real  beauty  and  force  of  the  expression. 
Hamlet  was  represented  as  alone  when  he  uttered  the 
words,  with  none  to  criticise,  and  so  excited  as  to  be 
querying  with  himself  whether  he  had  not  better  com- 
mit suicide.  His  brain  was  on  fire.  Thoughts  chased 
each  other  through  his  mind  so  fast  that  he  was  not 
able  to  finish  one  before  he  attempted  to  express  an- 
other. He  thought  of  "  taking  arms"  against  troub- 
les that  seemed  in  multitude  and  power  like  "a  sea," 
and  of  using  those  arms,  not  against  the  troubles,  but 
against  himself,  and  thus,  by  ending  his  own  life,  to 
end  them.  All  these  thoughts  and  more  forced  them- 
selves tumultuously  into  a  single  utterance.  Could  a 
more  nervous  expression  be  devised  than  that  of  the 
great  poet  ?  Those  who  condemn  it  expose  feebleness 
in  themselves,  not  in  Shakspeare. 

Shakspeare  abounds  in  such  "  mixed  metaphors  " 
when  the  circumstances  justified  them.  He  had  no 
occasion  to  resort  to  metaphors  from  a  paucity  of 


11-J  RHETORIC. 

terms,  for  he  used  more  than  twenty  thousand  words 
—more  perhaps  than  any  other  writer  in  the  English 
language  before  or  since.  And  yet  his  writings 
abound  in  metaphors. 

Generally,  incongruous  metaphors  should  be  avoid- 
ed. "  The  corner-stone  of  this  edifice  will  soon  fall 
prostrate  to  the  earth,"  is  very  absurd. 

Many  ludicrous  mixed  metaphors  are  thrown  off 
by  imaginative  speakers  which  are  offensive  to  good 
taste,  unless  the  object  is  to  amuse  by  their  extrava- 
gance. The  following  are  specimens : 

"The  apple  of  discord  is  now  fairly  in  our  midst,  and  if  not 
nipped  in  the  bud  it  will  burst  forth  into  a  conflagration  which  will 
deluge  the  sea  of  politics  with  an  earthquake  of  heresies." 

"This  man,  gentlemen  of  the  jury,  walks  into  court  like  a  mo- 
tionless statue,  with  the  cloak  of  hypocrisy  in  his  mouth,  and  is  at- 
tempting to  screw  three  large  oaks  out  of  my  clients'  pockets." 

"Boyle  was  the  father  of  chemistry,  and  brother  to  the  Earl  of 
Cork."  " 

At  the  same  time,  on  this  subject  as  on  others,  it 
is  possible  to  use  the  pruning-knife  too  severely. 

Many  eminent  writers  have  been  entirely  destitute 
of  bold  metaphor?,  but  a  talent  to  employ  them  should 
be  cultivated  by  observation  and  exercise. 


113 


CHAPTER  V. 

ANTITHESES. 

34.  The  Mind  notices  both  Similarities  and  Differ- 
ences of  Objects. — WE  have  remarked  under  Compari- 
son that  it  is  a  law  of  the  mind  to  observe  the  simi- 
larity of  objects,  in  one  or  more  particulars,  that  differ 
in  other  respects.     It  is  also  a  law  of  the  mind's  action 
to  observe  the  differences  of  objects,  in  one  or  more 
particulars,  that  are  alike  in  all  other  respects.     On 
the  action  of  these  laws  does  the  mind  depend  for  the 
classification  of  facts  and  objects.     Promptitude  and 
power  in  this  exercise  characterize  the  strongest  minds. 

35.  Definitions  and  Illustrations. — Antithesis  (from/ 
the  Greek  avr^  against,  and  ndtj^  to  place)  is  the  col- 
location of  two  objects  together  that  differ  distinctly,! 
at  least  in  one  particular,  and  agree  in  others. 

The  simplest  antitheses  are  those  in  which  the  at- 
tention is  called  to  the  difference  between  two  objects 
of  the  same  kind  for  the  purpose  of  definition.  For 
instance,  "  The  brig  is  a  square-rigged  vessel  with  two 
masts ;  the  sloop  is  a  fore-and-aft-rigged  vessel  with 
one  mast  and  a  jib-stay." 

"  The  old  Roman  had  an  aquiline  nose,  the  Greek, 
a  nose  long  and  straight," 


114  RIIJ-:T  <>]{!>. 

The  antithesis  becomes  more  striking  and  pleas- 
ing if  the  contrast  exists  in  more  than  one  particu- 
lar, while  the  likeness  in  other  particulars  .remains. 
Thus,  "  Caesar  died  a  violent  death,  but  his  empire 
remained ;  Cromwell  died  a  natural  death,  but  his  em- 
pire vanished." 

Antithesis  is  the  union  of  objects  by  their  differ- 
ences, and  exhibits  that  power  of  mind  without  which 
there  can  be  no  correct  generalization  nor  accurate 
analysis.  It  should  therefore  be  assiduously  cultiva- 
ted. It  sharpens  the  outline  of  the  objects,  whether 
material  or  mental,  which  are  at  the  same  time  com- 
pared and  contrasted,  and  makes  an  impression  of 
their  relative  character  more  vivid  than  could  other- 
wise be  produced. 

The  higher  exercise  of  this  power  is  exhibited  in 
detecting  and  presenting  differences  between  objects 
that  seem,  to  a  casual  observer,  to  be  alike ;  but  the 
highest  of  all  is  the  presentation  both  of  differences 
and  of  similarities  at  the  same  time  between  objects 
that  were  never  classified  together  before.  Upon  the 
degree  in  which  these  compared  and  contrasted  points 
exist,  and  the  vividness  with  which  they  are  express- 
ed, depend  the  force  and  beauty  of  the  antithesis. 

"Melissa,  like  the  bee,  gathers  honey  from  every 
weed ;  while  Arachne,  like  the  spider,  sucks  poison 
from  the  fairest  flowers."  In  this  instance  it  will  be 
seen  that  Melissa  and  Arachne  are  alike  in  nearly  all 
respects,  being  both  girls;  but  they  differ  in  two  re- 
spects :  Melissa  gathers  instruction  as  the  bee  gathers 
honey,  while  Arachne  gathers  bad  influences  as  the 


PREVALENCE   OF  ANTITHESIS.  H5 

spider  gathers  poison;  and  Melissa  gathers  her  in- 
struction from  unfavorable  sources,  "  weeds,"  while 
Arachne  gamers  her  bad  influences  from  good  sources, 
"  the  fairest  flowers." 

"  The  lamb  gambols  alike  through  the  green  pastures  or  to  the 
place  of  slaughter.  Up  to  the  last  flutter  of  her  wings,  the  bird 
ceases  not  to  trill  her  matins  upon  the  air.  But  the  only  immortal 
beinjj  upon  the  earth  lives  in  dread  of  death.  The  only  being  to 
whom  death  is  an  impossibility  fears  every  day  that  it  will  come." 

In  this  instance,  the  lamb  and  the  bird,  standing 
for  all  brute  animals,  are  compared  by  antithesis  with 
man.  Both  classes  are  alike,  in  being  exposed  to 
death,  but  the  differences  are,  they  are  mortal,  he  at 
once  mortal  and  immortal;  and  again,  they  do  not 
fear  to  die,  though  death  ends  them ;  he  does  fear  to 
die,  though  death  does  not  end  him.  Who  does  not 
see  that  the  idea  of  both  mortality  and  immortality  are 
rendered  more  vivid  by  such  an  antithesis? 

"  Here  lies  the  great False  marble,  where  ? 

Nothing  but  sordid  dust  lies  here !" 

The  antithesis  in  this  consists  in  the  two  pictures 
that  the  marble  monument  migbt  suggest  of  the  man 
whose  body  is  buried  beneath  it — either  "  the  great," 
as  he  was  when  living,  or  "  the  sordid  dust,"  which 
the  body  is  now. 

Many  excellent  specimens  of  antithesis  are  found 
in  the  Holy  Scriptures.  It  was  often  employed  by 
the  Saviour  in  his  necessarily  condensed  expressions, 
in  which  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  thought  was 
stored  up  for  all  future  generations.  "  He  that  hath, 
to  him  shall  be  given ;  he  that  hath  not,  from  him 


110  II 11 ET  (Jill* 

shall  be  taken  that  which  he  hath,"  is  antithetical, 
equivalent  to,  "  He  that  really  hath  for  improves 
what  he  has),  shall  have  more ;  while  Be  that  does 
not  really  have  any  thing  (that  is,  does  not  improve 
any  thing),  shall  lose  what  he  has."  The  principle 
of  this  antithetical  expression  is  uttered  in  the  prov- 
erb, "  Rivers  run  to  the  sea." 

The  prevalence  of  antithesis  is  so  great  in  good 
composition,  and  it  is  so  mingled  with  the  various 
figures  of  speech,  that  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  in 
some  instances  to  detect  it,  or  to  discriminate  between 
it  and  comparison  and  metaphor.  The  following  pas- 
sage undoubtedly  owes  much  of  its  impressiveness  to 
the  antithesis  of  its  thoughts. 

"The  infinity  of  worlds,  and  the  narrow  spot  of  earth  which  we 
call  our  home — the  eternity  of  ages,  and  the  few  hours  of  life— the 
almighty  power  of  God,  and  human  nothingness — it  is  impossible  to 
think  of  these  in  succession  without  a  feeling  like  that  which  is  pro- 
duced by  the  sublimest  eloquence." 

It  will  be  seen  in  the  above  that,  first,  "  the  infin- 
ity of  worlds  "  and  "  the  narrow  spot  of  earth  called 
home "  are  supposed  to  be  alike  as  space,  but  anti- 
thetic in  size  only;  then  "eternity"  and  "the  few 
hours"  are  alike  as  durufi'"it,  antithetic  in  extent  or 
amount;  "almighty  power"  and  "human  nothing- 
ness" are  alike  as  power,  for  by  "nothingness"  is 
really  meant  only  feebleness,  but  antithetic  in  degree; 
and  these  antitheses  are  justly  pronounced  impressive. 

36.  Effect  of  Antitheses. — Scientific  statements  ac- 
quire precision  from  antithesis.  "  In  the  animal 
body,"  says  Tyndall,  in  his  "  Heat  and  Mode  of  Mo- 


ANTITHETICAL   PROVERBS.  117 

tion,"  "  vegetable  substances  are  brought  again  into 
contact  with  their  beloved  oxygen,  and  they  burn 
within  us  as  a  fire  burns  in  a  grate."  This  is  a  com- 
parison. But  he  adds:  "In  the  plant  the  clock  is 
wound  up,  in  the  animal  it  runs  down.  In  the  plant 
the  atoms  are  separated,  in  the  animal  they  re-com- 
bine." This  is  antithesis. 

Almost  every  vivid  and  impressive  author  makes 
a  judicious  use  of  antitheses.  The  writings  of  Mac- 
aulay,  Bancroft,  and  of  many,  though  not  all  other  emi- 
nent historians,  ancient  and  modern,  sparkle  with  them. 
"That  there  are  fifty  thousand  thieves  in  London," 
says  Macaulay,  "  is  a  very  melancholy  fact.  But  look- 
ed at  in  one  point  of  view,  it  is  a  reason  for  exulta- 
tion.  For  what  other  city  could  maintain  fifty  thou- 
sand thieves?"  The  antithesis  consists  between  the 
first  view  of  a  city  having  fifty  thousand  thieves  as  a 
place  of  crime  and  wretchedness,  and  the  second  view 
of  the  same  city  as  a  place  able  to  support  fifty  thou- 
sand thieves  without  perceptibly  injuring  its  pros- 
perity. 

37.  Antithetical  Proverbs. — Antithesis  gives  beauty 
and  force  to  many  of  the  most  common  proverbs  in 
all  languages. 

"  {There  is  that  scattereth,  and  yet  increaseth ;  and 
there  is  that  withholdeth  more  than  is  meet,  but  it 
tendeth  to'  poverty."  "  The  wicked  flee  when  no 
man  pursueth :  but  the  righteous  are  as  bold  as  a 
lion."  "  Open  rebuke  is  better  than  secret  love." 
"  There  is  but  a  step  from  the  sublime  to  the  ridicu- 
lous." The  antithesis  in  this  last  proverb  consists  in 


118  RHETORIC. 

perceiving  both  a  strange  likeness  and  unlikeness  in 
two  expressions  that  would  be  supposed  to  have  noth- 
ing in  common — nearly  alike  in  extravagance  or  di- 
vergence from  ordinary  thought,  totally  unlike  in 
their  nature  and  effects. 

38.  Antithetical  Descriptions. — It  is  an  exercise  of 
thought  closely  akin  to  antithesis,  and  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  department  of  this  rhetorical  figure,  when 
seemingly  incongruous  or  widely  different  qualities 
are  presented  as  belonging  to  the  same  object.     This 
practice  calls  the  attention  not  to  two  objects  alike  in 
many  points  and  differing  in  one  or  more,  but  to 
'i.lities  both  different  and  alike,  inhering  in  the  same 
f  object.     Thus  Young  says  of  life  : 

"  Life  has  no  value  as  an  end,  but  means ; 
An  en-1,  deplorable !  a  means,  divine ! 
When  'tis  our  all  'tis  nothing ;  worse  than  naught ; 
A  nest  of  pains  ;  when  held  as  nothing,  much." 

Bulwer  says,  "  The  Spartans  had  no  respect  for  any 
other  cultivation  of  the  mind  than  that  which  pro- 
duced bold  men  and  short  sentences."  "  Sparta  be- 
came a  nation  of  misers  precisely  because  it  could  not 
become  a  nation  of  spendthrifts."*" 

This  kind  of  thought  and  expression  is  often  em- 
ployed by  essayists,  historians,  and  orators.  It  is  apt 
to  degenerate  into  a  mannerism,  and,  like  all  antith- 
esis, should  be  sparingly  used.  The  excessive  use  of 
it  may  be  seen  in  the  writings  of  Seneca,  in  such 
works  as  Colton's  "  Lacon,"  Montesquieu's  "  Spirit  of 
Laws,"  Emerson's  "Essays,"  and  many  others.  Vic- 

*  Bulwer's  Athens :   its  Rise  and  Fall,  hook  i.  chap.  ix. 


ANTITHESES   AND    COMPARISONS.  119 

tor  Hugo  thus  antithetically  describes  Wellington  and 
Napoleon : 

"Napoleon  and  Wellington :  they  are  not  enemies,  they  are  oppo- 
sites.  Never  has  God,  who  takes  pleasure  in  antithesis,  made  a  more 
striking  contrast  and  a  more  extraordinary  meeting.  On  one  side, 
precision,  foresight,  geometry,  prudence,  retreat  assured,  reserves 
economized,  obstinate  composure,  imperturbable  method,  strategy  to 
profit  by  the  ground,  tactics  to  balance  battalions,  carnage  drawn  to 
the  line,  war  directed  watch  in  hand,  nothing  left  voluntarily  to 
chance,  ancient  classic  courage,  absolute  correctness :  on  the  other 
hand,  intuition,  inspiration,  a  military  marvel,  a  superhuman  in- 
stinct, a  flashing  glance,  a  mysterious  something  which  gazes  like  the 
eagle  and  strikes  like  the  thunderbolt ;  prodigious  art  in  disdainful 
impetuosity,  all  the  mysteries  of  a  deep  soul,  intimacy  with  Des- 
tiny, river,  plain,  forest,  hill  commanded,  and  in  some  sort  forced  to 
obi-y,  thu  ilcspot  going  even  so  far  as  to  tyrannize  over  the  battle-.field, 
faith  in  a  star  joined  to  strategic  sciemv,  increasing  if,  but  disturb- 
ing it." 

39.  Antitheses  and  Comparisons  combined. — Antithe- 
ses are  sometimes  united  with  comparisons  and  far 
extended,  in  the  portraiture  of  two  similar  and  dis- 
similar characters,  or  of  two  similar  ages,  or  govern- 
ments, countries,  or  objects  of  any  kind  that  will  ad- 
mit of  such  a  description.  Such  portraitures  are 
usually  labored  and  wearisome ;  and  among  the  many 
that  have  been  attempted,  but  few  are  satisfactory. 
One  of  the  most  noted  is  the  comparison  of  Dryden 
and  Pope,  as  poets,  by  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson.  We  give 
two  or  three  sentences  as  specimens : 

"Dryden  knew  more  of  man  in  his  general  nature,  and  Pope  in 
his  local  manners.  The  notions  of  Dryden  were  formed  by  compre- 
hensive speculation,  and  those  of  Pope  by  minute  attention.  There 
is  more  dignity  in  the  knowledge  of  Dryden,  and  more  certainty 
in  that  of  Pope.  *  *  *  Dryden  is  sometimes  vehement  and  rapid ; 
Pope  is  always  smooth,  uniform,  and  gentle.  Dryden's  page  is  n 
natural  field,  rising  into  inequalities,  and  diversified  by  the  varied 


120  RHETORIC. 

exuberance  of  abundant  vegetation  ;  Pope's  is  a  velvet  lawn,  shorn 
by  the  scythe,  and  levelled  by  the  roller.  *  *  *  If  the  flights  of 
Dryden,  therefore,  are  higher,  Pope  continues  longer  on  the  wing. 
If  of  Dryden's  fire  the  blaze  is  brighter,  of  Pope's  the  heat  is  more 
regular  and  constant.  Dryden  often  surpasses  expectation,  and  Pope 
never  falls  below  it.  Dryden  is  read  with  frequent  astonishment, 
and  Pope  with  perpetual  delight." 

Such  antithetical  comparisons  of  two  or  more  sim- 
ilar characters  were  often  made,  especially  by  writers 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  but  too  frequently  the 
writer  is  either  tempted  to  strain  the  truth  for  the 
sake  of  the  contrast,  or  to  make  it  more  verbal  than 
real,  while  the  ostentatious  display  of  art  in  the  style 
will  displease,  unless  both  the  sound  and  sense  are 
unobjectionable. 

40.  Should  Antithesis  be  cultivated? — As  it  regards 
the  cultivation  of  this  figure  of  thought  and  speech, 
it  may  be  observed  that  few  use  it  efficiently,  and 
that  when  well  used  it  is  exceedingly  pleasing  and 
impressive.     It  undoubtedly  requires  patient  study. 
It  is  a  characteristic  of  the  most  cultivated  ages  and 
authors.     Like  the  most  advanced  music,  it  is  appre- 
ciated fully  only  by  the  highly  educated.     The  habit 
of  employing  it  well  should  be  acquired. 

41.  /ram. — Antithesis  generally  gives  point 
to  an  Epigram.     An  Epigram  proper  is  a  sentence 
in  prose,  or  a  short  poem,  treating  only  of  one  thing, 
and  embracing  some  striking  or  ingenious  thought. 
Usually  the  thought  is  antithetically  expressed.     One 
of  the  oldest,  translated  from  the  Greek  of  Callima- 
chus,  on  the  death  of  his  friend  Heiaclitus,  a  poet,  we 
give  as  follows : 


EPIGRAM,  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS.  121 

"  I  heard  thy  fate,  loved  friend,  and  dropped  a  tear; 
Rushed  on  my  mind  the  scenes  of  many  a  year, 
When  on  our  chat  sun  after  sun  went  down. 
But  thou  hast  long  been  dust — thy  days  are  flown { 
Yet  still  thy  songs  survive ;  nor  these  shall  Doom, 
All-spoiler  he,  with  withering  touch  consume." 

The  epigram  is  now  made  to  embrace  any  brief 
expression  of  a  startling  thought. 

"  Silence  is  the  most  effective  eloquence." 

"Riches  empty  the  soul  and  the  pocket;    poverty  replenishes 

both." 

Hesiod  says :  "  How  often  is  a  half  greater  than  the  whole  !" 
"He  described  the  whole  world— and  also  the  West  Indies." 

Such  expressions  are  allied  to  wit,  in  which  antith- 
esis is  often  employed. 

42.  Further  Examples,  and  Conclusion. 

"Is  not  wild  Shakspeare  thine  and  nature's  boast?" 
"  He  that's  convinced  against  his  will 

Is  of  the  same  opinion  still." 
"A  fool  with  judges  ;  among  fools  a  judge." 
"Better  to  reign  in  hell  than  serve  in  heaven." 

Dr.  Campbell  justly  remarks :  "  The  excess  itself," 
in  the  use  of  antithesis,  "into  which  some  writers 
have  fallen,  is  an  evidence  of  its  value — of  the  lus- 
tre and  emphasis  which  antithesis  is  calculated  to 
give  to  the  expression.  There  is  no  risk  of  intemper- 
ance in  using  a  liquor  which  has  neither  spirit  nor 
flavor." 

An  antithetical  form  of  expression,  when  there  is 
no  contrast  in  the  thoughts,  is  jejune  and  displeasing. 

F 


RHETORIC. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ALLEGORIES   AND    FABLES. 

43.  Definition,  a,  ntions. —  An  Allegory  is  a 

fictitious  narrative  or  description  so  constructed  as 
to  suggest  thoughts  and  facts  entirely  different  from 
those  which  it  appears  to  relate.  The  word  is  de- 
rived from  the  Greek  aXAoc,  another,  and  ayopeuw  to 
speak,  and  means  literally  what  speaks  another  thing ; 
that  is,  it  speaks  one  thing,  and  means  another. 

The  nature  of  it  will  be  best  appreciated  by  study- 
ing some  examples. 

In  the  prophesy  of  Hosea,  chap.  x.  ver.  1,  we  read, 
"  Israel  is  an  empty  vine."  This  is  called  either  a 
metaphor  or  a  trope,  because  "  vine  "  is  used  in  a 
figurative  sense  for  a  "  nation "  preserved  by  Jeho- 
vah as  a  grape-vine  is  cared  for  by  a  gardener.  It 
will  be  observed  that  "  Israel "  is  mentioned,  so  that 
no  ingenuity  is  required  on  the  part  of  the  reader  to 
determine  what  the  writer  means.  Now  let  us  sup- 
pose that  the  word  "  Israel "  was  not  mentioned,  but 
that  the  writer  should  describe  a  "  vine,"  but  yet  so 
describe  it  that  the  reader  should  soon  perceive  that 
the  writer  meant  to  th  ink  about  a  nation,  which 

he  was  describing  under  the  figure  of  a  vine.  This 
would  be  an  Allegory. 


ALLEGORY  AND   FABLE.  123 

Fortunately  we  have  just  such  an  instance  in  the 
eightieth  Psalm. 

"Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt."  [Observe,  the  writer 
does  not  inform  us  that  vine  represents  the  nation  of  Israel.  If  he 
did  so,  he  would  begin  with  a  comparison,  or  he  might  use  a  metaphor, 
but  he  leaves  it  to  our  discrimination  to  perceive  that  though  he  says 
"vine,"  he  means  Israel.]  "Thou  hast  cast  out  the  heathen,  and 
planted  it."  [It  would  have  been  more  allegorical  to  say,  Thou  hast 
rooted  up  the  wild  vines,  and  planted  it.  ]  "  Thou  preparedst  room 
for  it,  and  didst  cause  it  to  take  deep  root,  and  it  filled  the  land. 
The  hills  were  covered  with  the  shadow  of  it,  and  the  boughs  thereof 
were  like  the  goodly  cedars ;  she  sent  out  her  boughs  unto  the  sea, 
and  her  branches  unto  the  river.  Why  hast  thou  then  broken  down 
her  hedges,  so  that  all  they  which  pass  by  do  pluck  her  ?  The  boar 
out  of  the  wood  doth  waste  it,  and  the  wild  beast  of  the  field  doth  de- 
vour it.  Return,  we  beseech  thce,  O  God  of  hosts,  look  down  from 
heaven,  and  behold  and  visit  this  vine." 

This  is  a  beautiful  allegory,  and  the  Bible  has  sev- 
eral more  good  specimens. 

The  parable  of  the  Prodignl  Son  is  a  pure  allegory. 
No  key  to  its  real  meaning  is  given,  but  every  read- 
er of  good  sense  knows  that  it  is  designed  to  convey 
a  meaning  entirely  different  from  the  literal  signifi- 
cation of  the  words.  It  is  so  with  all  the  parables 
of  the  Saviour,  all  being  allegorical.  In  the  Book 
of  Proverbs,  chap,  ix.,  and  the  first  six  verses,  a  short 
Allegory  will  be  found. 

44.  The  Fable,  and  Illustrations. — The  word  folk  is 
derived  from  the  Latin  fabula,  and  meant  originally 
nearly  the  same  thing  as  an  allegory,  a  fictitious  nar- 
rative. But  as  it  is  contrary  to  the  genius  of  the  En- 
glish language  to  have  two  words  meaning  precisely 
the  same  thing,  fable,  by  usage,  has  acquired  a  differ- 
ent shade  of  signification. 

A  Fable  is  a  fictitious  story,  in  itself  improbable, 


RHETORIC. 

generally  impossible,  but  nevertheless  conveying  or 
illustrating  some  moral  instruction,  or  some  opinion. 

It  differs  from  an  Allegory,  first,  in  being  improb- 
able and  necessarily  fictitious,  and  second,"in  convey- 
ing generally  one  simple  moral  lesson,  or  opinion, 
without  exhibiting  numerous  points  of  similarity,  as 
the  Allegory  does,  between  the  thing  described  and 
the  instruction  meant 

In  the  Second  Book  of  Kings,  chap.  xiv.  ver.  9, 
we  read : 

"The  thistle  that  was  in  Lebanon  sent  to  the  cedar  that  was  in 
Lebanon,  saying,  Give  thy  daughter  to  my  son  to  wife:  and  there 
passed  by  a  wild  beast  that  was  in  Lebanon,  and  trode  down  the 
thistle." 

This  of  course  could  not  be  true,  and  it  is  there- 
fore a/oZ>fe,  but  the  meaning  of  it  was  well  understood 
when  it  was  first  uttered. 

No  better  fables  have  ever  been  written  than  the 
famous  productions  commonly  called  the  Fables  of 
^Esop,  which  have  probably  been  wrought  into  their 
present  expressiveness  and  beauty  by  many  different 
minds. 

45.  The  Use  of  Fables. — Fables  are  seldom  intro- 
duced into  sober  composition  to  illustrate  and  enforce 
truth,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  constructing  one 
that  shall  be  at  the  same  time  dignified  and  appropri- 
ate. They  are  generally  composed  by  writers  who 
have  a  genius  for  them,  or  who  study  to  produce 
them,  and  they  are  often  alluded  to  or  quoted  by 
other  writers.  Among  the  ancient  Athenians  it 
a  common  amusement  for  some  one  at  a  dinner-table 


INSTANCES    OF  ALLEUOliY.  125 

to  relate  a  fable  for  the  gratification  of  his  friends. 
Koman  history  presents  an  instance  in  which  a  fable 
was  invented  and  related  with  good  effect.  The  Ple- 
beians were  in  rebellion  against  the  Patricians,  when, 
to  appease  their  violence,  Menenius  Agrippa  is  said 
to  have  related  to  the  people  the  following  fable : 

"  Once  on  a  time  all  the  members  of  the  body  revolted  against  the 
Belly,  because  it  received  every  tiling  and  contributed  nothing.  So  the 
Hand  said  it  would  no  longer  carry  food  to  the  Mouth  ;  the  Mouth 
said  it  would  no  longer  receive  it ;  and  the  Teeth  said  they  would  no 
longer  chew  it.  They  all  declared  they  would  no  longer  slave,  as 
they  had  done,  for  the  lazy  and  ungrateful  Belly.  So  they  rose  in 
insurrection  ,  but,  lo  !  while  the  rebellious  members  sought  to  pun- 
ish the  Belly,  they  languished  and  punished  themselves."* 

46.  Further  Illustrations  of  the  Allegory. — Allegories 
are  much  more  frequently  employed.  It  would  be 
easy  to  collect  a  volume  of  them  from  the  best  authors 
in  the  English  language. 

Pla'to,  in  one  of  his  profound  Dialogues,  f  describes 
an  under-ground  cave,  having  an  opening  toward  the 
light  of  a  great  fire,  peopled  by  persons  who  have 
worn  chains  on  their  legs  and  necks  all  their  lives. 
Between  the  fire  and  the  miserable  creatures  is  a  road, 
and  they  are  amusing  themselves  with  looking  at  their 
own  shadows  on  the  opposite  wall  and  listening  to 
words  that  seem  to  come  from  the  images,  but  are 
only  echoes  of  their  own  voices.  The  description  is 

*  This  story,  related  in  Roman  history,  has  been  repeated  by 
many ;  among  others,  by  Shakspeare  in  Coriolanus,  act  i.  scene  1, 
who  has  expanded  it  without  improvement.  The  apostle  Paul  has 
presented  the  same  illustration,  in  the  form  of  a  supposition,  very 
forcibly  in  1  Corinthians  xii.  20. 

t  The  Republic,  book  vii.  chap.  i. 


rjti  RUI 

carried  out  into  several  pages,  and  is  an  allegory  de- 
scribing the  miserable  condition  of  men  in  this  world, 
as  it  seemed  to  Plato. 

Often  what  may  properly  be  considered  an  alle- 
gory is  introduced  by  a  few  words  of  explanation  that 
put  the  reader  upon  the  right  track,  and  make  it  easy 
for  him  to  understand  the  author's  real  meaning. 
Thus  Coleridge,  in  his  "  Biographia  Literaria,"  pro- 
poses an  association  of  learned  men  to  examine  all  lit- 
erary productions  as  they  appear,  and  decide  upon 
their  merits.  He  calls  this  proposed  association  a 
"  critical  machine."  These  words  seem  to  have  sug- 
gested to  him  such  correspondences  between  the 
workings  of  a  critical  association  and  a  machine  as 
naturally  shaped  themselves  into  an  allegory,  thus: 

"Should  any  literary  Quixote*  find  himself  provoked  by  its  sounds 
and  regular  movements,  I  should  admonish  him,  with  Sancho  Panza, 
that  it  is  no  giant,  but  a  windmill ;  there  it  stands  on  its  own  place 
and  its  own  hillock,  never  goes  out  of  its  way  to  attack  any  one,  and 
to  none  and  from  none  either  gives  or  asks  assistance.  When  the 
public  press  has  poured  in  any  part  of  its  produce  between  its  mill- 
stones, it  grinds  it  off,  one  man's  sack  the  same  as  another,  and  with 
whatever  wind  may  then  happen  to  be  blowing.  All  the  two-and- 
thirty  winds  are  alike  its  friends.  Of  the  whole  wide  atmosphere  it 
does  not  desire  a  single  finger-breadth  more  than  what  is  necessary 
for  its  sails  to  turnVmnd  in.  But  this  space  must  be  left  free  and 
unimpeded.  Gnats,  beetles,  wasps,  bottle-flies,  and  the  whole  tribe  of 
ephemerals  and  insignificants,  may  flit  in  and  out  and  between ;  may 
hum,  and  buzz,  and  jar ;  may  shrill  their  tiny  pipes,  and  wind  their 
puny  horns,  unchastised  and  unnoticed.  But  idlers  and  bravadoes 
of  larger  size  and  prouder  show  must  beware  how  they  place  them- 
selves within  its  sweep.  Much  less  may  they  presume  to  lay  hands 

*  Referring  to  Don  Quixote,  who  is  represented  as  a  crazy  knight, 
in  one  instance  fighting  with  a  windmill,  of  which  fact  he  is  informed 
by  his  servant  Sancho  Panza. 


OF  ALLEGORY.  127 

on  the  sails,  the  strength  of  which  is  neither  greater  nor  less  than  as 
the  wind  is  which  drives  them  round.  Whomsoever  the  remorseless 
arm  slings  aloft,  or  whirls  along  with  it  in  the  air,  he  has  himself 
alone  to  blame  ;  though,  when  the  same  arm  throws  him  from  it,  it 
will  more  often  double  than  break  the  force  of  his  fall."* 

Such  allegories  have  been  called  continued  meta- 
phors, but  incorrectly.  A  metaphor  is  a  condensed 
single  comparison  between  two  objects,  but  this  is  a 
series  of  comparisons  or  strange  likenesses  between 
two  different  objects.  Each  item  in  the  description, 
for  instance,  of  the  above  critical  windmill,  has  some 
reference  to  the  effect  that  the  association  imagined 
might  have. 

Some  good  specimens  of  allegories  are,  "  The  Em- 
pire of  Poetry,"  by  Fontenelle  (translated  from  the 
French) ;  "  The  Hill  of  Science,"  by  Dr.  Aiken,  and 
"The  Mountains  of  Miseries"  (and  several  others,  in 
the  Spectator),  by  Addison;  "The  Pilgrim's  Prog- 
ress," by  Bunyan ;  "  The  Celestial  Railroad,". by  Haw- 
thorne, and  the  "Bream  of  the  Destruction  of  the  Bi- 
ble," by  Rogers. 

47.  Short  Allegories. — It  must  not  be  supposed  that 
allegories  are  necessarily  long.  They  are  often  brief. 
Thus  when  Quintilian,  pleading  for  a  polished  style 
of  writing,  makes  use  of  the  following  expressions,  he 
really  employs  an  allegory,  and  such  allegories  are 
common. 

"  I  should  prefer  a  block  of  Parian  marble  to  a  statue,  cut  even  by 
the  hand  of  a  Praxiteles  out  of  a  millstone ;  but  were  the  same  mas- 
ter to  polish  that  block,  it  would  become  more  precious,  through  his 
art,  than  its  own  value." 

Quintilian  here  did  not  intend  primarily  to  express 

*  Coleridge's  Complete  Works  (New  York,  1854),  vol.  iii.  p.  454. 


128  RHETORIC. 

any  opinion  about  the  comparative  value  of  marble 
and  coarse  stones ;  but  while  he  used  those  words  he  in- 
tended that  his  readers  should  understand  that  a  good 
thought  poorly  expressed  (a  block  of  marble  roughly 
hewed)  is  better  than  a  poor  thought  rhetorically  ex- 
pressed (a  statue  made  of  a  millstone  by  Praxiteles) ; 
but  that  he  would  prefer  the  good  thought  beautifully 
expressed  (the  marble  block  wrought  up  and  pol- 
ished). 

Happy  is  the  author  who  can  judiciously  illustrate 
and  ornament  his  productions  with  the  occasional  use 
of  allegory. 

48.  Relation  of  Allegory  to  'Art — The  principle  of 
the  Allegory  is  the  foundation  of  a  large  department 
of  the  works  of  art ;  Temperance  is  represented  as  a 
woman  with  a  bridle ;  Firmness  as  a  woman  leaning 
against  a  pillar.  Hope,  Courage,  War,  Peace,  Com- 
merce, Life,  Death,  all  have  their  appropriate  emblems. 
An  emblematic  painting  may  be  intrinsically  beauti- 
ful, and  also  strikingly  illustrate  some  passion  or  the 
result  of  some  custom,  or  some  law  of  mind.  The 
"  Voyage  of  Life  "  has  been  allegorically  presented  in  a 
series  of  pictures.  The  career  of  a  gambler,  a  drunk- 
ard, an  ambitious  man,  a  Christian,  might  be  repre- 
sented in  a  series  of  paintings  or  statues.  Even  arch- 
itecture derives  an  interest  from  the  principle  of  the 
Allegory.  The  heavy  Gothic  style  is  felt  to  symbolize 
mystery,  profundity,  and  to  awaken  reverence,  and  is 
therefore  suited  to  a  house  of  worship,  while  the  lighter 
Grecian  styles  betoken  rather  cheerfulness  and  social 
pleasure.  Many  of  these  suggestions  may  be  deemed 


RULES  FOR    USE    OF  ALLEGORY.  129 

fanciful,  but  it  will  be  found  that  allegory  is  very 
prevalent  in  literature  and  art,  and  that  its  principles 
will  richly  deserve  careful  attention. 

49.  Elements  of  a  good  Allegory. — Three  qualities  are 
demanded  in  every  written  allegory  : 

(1.)  The  narrative  must  be  so  constructed  as  to 
please  and  interest,  even  if  the  real  lesson  designed  to 
be  conveyed  is  overlooked. 

(2.)  The  real  lesson  or  object  of  the  Allegory  should 
be  easily  seen  ;  and  if  there  would  be  any  doubt  about 
its  being  understood,  let  a  few  words  of  explanation 
be  prefaced. 

(3.)  Both  meanings  of  the  Allegory  should,  if  possi- 
ble, be  valuable. 

A  strict  adherence  to  an  order  of  nature  or  facts 
in  a  long  allegory,  so  that  every  thing  said  of  the 
secondary  subject  should  illustrate  some  truth,  is  not 
always  possible,  and  the  writer  of  an  allegory  or  par- 
able is  allowed  to  combine  incidents  in  any  way  that 
imagination,  guided  by  reason,  sees  conducive  to  the 
end  in  view. 

EXAMPLES  OF  ALLEGORY. 

Inasmuch  as  this  figure  is  much  more  frequently 
employed  by  some  good  writers  than  has  been  usually 
supposed,  we  give  a  few  more  specimens. 

The  first  two  are  from  Macaulav : 

"The  final  and  permanent  fruits  of  liberty  are  wisdom,  modera- 
tion, and  mercy.  Its  immediate  effects  are  often  atrocious  crimes, 
conflicting  errors,  skepticism  on  points  the  most  clear,  dogmatism  on 
points  the  most  mysterious.  It  is  just  at  this  crisis  ihtK  its  enemies 
love  to  exhibit  it.  They  pull  down  the  scaffolding  from  the  half- 

F2 


130  RUETUi 


finished  edifice  ;  they  point  to  the  flying  dust,  the  falling  bricks,  the 
comfortless  rooms,  the  frightful  irregularity  of  the  whole  appearance, 
and  then  ask  in  scorn  where  the  promised  splendor  and  comfort  are 
to  be  found." 

"A  pedestrian  may  show  as  much  muscular  vigor  on  a  tread- 
mill as  on  the  highway  road.  But  on  the  road  his  vigor  will  as- 
suredly carry  him  forward  ;  on  the  tread-mill  he  will  not  advance  an 
inch.  The  ancient  philosophy  was  a  tread-mill,  not  a  path." 

"There  stands  an  ancient  architectural  pile,  with  tokens  of  its 
venerable  age  covering  it  from  its  corner-stone  to  its  topmost  tur- 
ret ;  and  some  imagine  these  to  be  tokens  of  decay,  while  to  others 
they  indicate,  by  the  years  they  chronicle,  a  massiveness  that  can  yet 
defy  more  centuries  than  it  has  weathered  years.  Its  foundation  is 
buried  in  the  accumulated  mould  and  clustered  masses  of  many  gen- 
erations. Its  walls  are  mantled  and  hidden  by  parasitic  vines.  Its 
apartments  are  some  of  them  dark  and  cold,  as  if  their  very  cement 
were  dissolving  in  chilly  vapors.  Others,  built  against  the  walls, 
were  never  framed  into  them  ;  and  now  their  ceilings  are  broken, 
their  floors  are  uneven  as  the  surface  of  a  billow,  their  timbers  seem 
-ustain  one  another  than  to  break  one  another's  fall.  You 
dig  away  the  mould,  and  lo  !  the  foundation  was  laid  by  no  mortal 
hand  ;  it  is  primitive  rock  that  strikes  its  roots  down  an  unfathoma- 
ble depth  into  the  solid  earth,  so  that  no  frosts  can  heave  it,  no  con- 
vulsions shake  it.  Such  an  edifice  is  Christianity"  (Dr.  A.  P.  Pea- 
body's  Christianity  the  Religion  of  Nature). 


HYPERBOLE.  131 


CHAPTER  VII. 

HYPERBOLES,  OR  EXTRAVAGANT  EXPRESSIONS. 

50.  Definition. — AN  expression  which,  literally  un- 
derstood, means  more  than  the  author  really  intends 
to  utter,  is  called  a  Hyperbole.     The  word  is  derived 
from  two  Greek  words  which  signify  to  throw  beyond. 

Under  the  influence  of  strong  emotion,  this  is  the 
most  natural  and  the  most  common  figure  of  speech. 
It  abounds  in  conversation,  oratory,  poetry,  in  descrip- 
tions of  persons,  places,  and  events,  and  indeed  is 
found  in  almost  every  species  of  composition. 

The  last  verse  of  the  Gospel  according  to  St.  John 
informs  us,  "And  there  are  also  many  other  things 
which  Jesus  did,  the  which  if  they  should  be  written 
every  one,  I  suppose  that  even  the  world  itself  could 
not  contain  the  books  that  should  be  written."  This 
can  not  be  supposed  to  be  the  literal,  arithmetical 
calculation  of  the  writer,  but  it  is  a  hyperbolical  way 
of  conveying  the  thought  that  what  he  had  written 
was  but  a  scanty  description  of  the  deeds  and  words 
of  the  eventful  life  of  Jesus.  There  are  but  a  few 
passages  of  the  Bible  -undoubtedly  hyperbolical. 

51.  Is  Hyperbole  morally  Wrong? — Some  critics  and 
moralists  have  wholly  disapproved  of  its  use,  but  such 
persons   are  hypercritical,  if  not  hyperbolical,   and, 


132  RUETORl* '. 

upon  a  narrow,  undiscriminating  basis  of  morality  and 
taste,  would  rob  the  world  of  the  most  of  its  healthful 
passion  and  poetry.  One  of  the  chief  elements  of  effi- 
ciency in  oratory,  and  one  of  the  chief  charms  of  po- 
etry, is  Hyperbole.  Language  is  not  always  to  be  un- 
derstood literally,  or  according  to  what  the  words  would 
mean  if  employed  without  passion  and  with  scientific 
precision,  but  according  to  what  the  speaker  may  be 
properly  supposed  to  mean  when  he  uses  it.  The 
hearer  is  presumed  to  be  able  to  make  all  due  allow- 
ance for  strong  emotion,  and  there  is  a  pleasure  in 
feeling  the  power  communicated  to  thought  even  by 
extravagant  expression. 

Many  of  the  common  expressions  used  in  conver- 
sation and  in  epistolary  writings  are  not  designed  to 
be  construed  with  literal  exactness.  Washington, 
when  elected  Commander-in-chief  of  the  American 
forces  in  1775,  wrote  to  his  wife  thus :  "I  should  en- 
joy more  real  happiness  with  you  at  home  than  I  have 
the  mest  distant  prospect  of  .finding  abroad,  if  my 
stay  were  to  be  seven  times  seven  .years."  Evidently 
he  meant  simply  to  be  understood  that  it  was  a  great 
sacrifice  for  him  to  yield  the  pleasures  of  domestic 
life,  to  respond  to  the  call  of  his  country:  Many 
years  afterward,  though  his  writings  are  generally 
very  cool  and  free  from  extravagance,  he  wrote  to 
another  lady  thus:  "None  of  which. events,  however, 
nor  all  of  them  together,  have  been  able  to  eradicate 
from  my  mind  the  recollection  of  those  happy  mo- 
ments. ///'  happiest  of  my  life,  which  I  have  enjoyed  in 
y<mr  company." 


THE  PHILOSOPHY   OF  HYPERBOLE.          133 

Dr.  Franklin,  writing  to  David  Hume,  the  historian, 
said  :  "  We  are  told  that  gold  and  silver  in  Solomon's 
time  were  so  plenty,  as  to  be  of  no  more  value  in  his 
country  than  the  stones  in  the  street.  You  have  at 
present  j  list  such  a  plenty — of  wisdom."  This  was  not 
designed  to  be  flattery,  but  it  was  a  strong  way  of  ex- 
pressing his  estimation  of  the  accomplishments  of 
Hume  and  his  friends. 

Even  a  scientific  writer,  Gaussen,  speaking  of  the 
effects  of  spring  on  vegetation,  says  :  "  The  whole  ere- 
it(tn/t"  (literally,  of  course,  including  dead  timber, 
stones,  the  stars,  and  all  animals,  angels,  iind  other  ex- 
istences), "as  if  raised  from  a  tomb,  is  penetrated  with 
life,  and  pulsates  with  joy."  No  one  could  be  so  in- 
considerate as  to  suppose  that  "  the  whole  creation  "  in 
the  above  sentence  means  thesame  as  in  the  following : 
"  The  whole  creation,  taken  together,  forms  one  grand, 
connected  system,  the  sublime  Cosmos,  fitly  exhibit- 
ing the  power  and  wisdom  of  .God." 

52.  The  Philosophy  of  Hyperbole. — It  is  a  law  of 
the  mind  that  whatever  occupies  the  attention  at  pres- 
ent should  assume  a  disproportionate  relative  magni- 
tude ;  and  if  others  surrender  themselves  to  the  influ- 
ence of  that  mind,  they  naturally,  and  generally  un- 
consciously, expect  to  receive  impressions  and  thoughts 
that  are  really  magnified  by -the  emotion  and  interest 
of  the  author.  Thus,  in  a  treatise  on  Physiology, 
Chemistry,  Astronomy,  Agriculture,  Painting,  or  any 
other  subject,  we  expect  to  see  its  claims  set  forth  in 
what  would  be  an  undue  prominence  if  we  were  not 
intelligent  enough  to  supplement  the  information  and 


emotion  thus  acquired,  by  the  successive  examination 
of  other  subjects.  Each  subject  is,  in  its  turn,  hyper- 
bolically  presented. 

53.  Prevalence  of  Hyperbole,  and  Examples. — From 
this  fact,  hyperbole  abounds  in  sermons,"  orations, 
and  eloquent  addresses  of  every  kind.  The  eccentric 
orator  Randolph,  in  one  of  his  speeches  in  Congress, 
exclaimed :  uAnd  what,  sir,  is  debt  ?  In  an  individu- 
al it  is  slavery.  It  is  slavery  of  the  worst  sort,  sur- 
passing that  of  the  West  India  Islands."  Could  he 
have  meant  to  be  understood  literally  ? 

Hon.  Rufus  Choate,  describing  what  he  conceived 
to  be  the  evils  of  electing  judges  by  a  popular  vote, 
exclaimed :  "  So  nominated,  the  candidate  is  put 
through  a  violent  election,  abused  by  the  press,  abused 
on  the  stump,  accused  a  thousand  times  over  with  be- 
ing very  little  of  a  lawyer,  and  a  good.deal  of  a  knave 
and  a  boor :  and,  after  being  tossed  on  this  kind  of  a 
blanket  for  some  uneasy  months,  is  chosen  by  a  ma- 
jority of  ten  votes  out  of  a  hundred  thousand,  and 
comes  into  court  breathless,  terrified,  with  perspiration 
in  drops  on  his  brow,  wondering  how  he  ever  got 
there,  to  take  his  seat  on  the  bench." 

However  unbecoming  the  excessive  use  of  Hyper- 
bole may  be  regarded,  it  is  evident  that  many  of  the 
best  creations  of  ancient  and  modern  times  would  be 
sadly  mutilated  and  emasculated,  were  .all  hyperbol- 
ical expressions  and  sentiments  expunged. 

Often  writers  and  speakers  assume  a  style  of  extrav- 
agant expression  which  is  evidently  not  intended  to 
be  understood  literally,  but  nevertheless  is  felt  to  be 


11  YPEKBOLE  IS    USED.  135 

much  more  convincing  and  forcible  than  an  exact 
statement  of  what  they  really  do  believe  would  be. 
Thus  an  English  writer  describes  the  north-east 

wind : 

"  Boreas  is  a  ruffian  and  a  bully,  but  the  north-east  is  a  rascal.  It 
withers  like  an  evil  eye;  it  blights  like  a  parent's  curse;  unkiiult-r 
than  ingratitude  ;  more  biting  than  forgotten  benefits.  It  comes  with 
sickness  on  its  wings,  and  rejoices  only  the  doctor  and  the  sexton. 
While  it  reigns,  no  fire  heats,  no  raiment  comforts,  no  walls  protect. 
It  deflowers  the  earth,  and  it  wans  the  sky.  The  ghastliest  of  hues 
overspreads  the  face  of  things,  and  collapsing  Nature  seems  expiring 
of  cholera."  • 

"Undoubtedly  many  critics  would  pronounce  the 
above  extravagant,  as  indeed  we  have  seen  in  some 
treatises  on  Rhetoric  some  of  the  most  impressive  hy- 
perboles of  Shakspeare  and  other  writers  torn  out  of 
their  connections,  and  after  the  life-blood  has  run  out 
of  them,  pronounced  extravagant  and  ugly  !  The  mer- 
it of  such  expressions  depends  much  upon  the  ability 
and  mood  of  the  hearer. 

54.  Much  used  in  Poetry,  Wit,  Argument,  etc. — Poet- 
ry of  every  kind  abounds  in  Hyperbole,  as  we  shall 
show  when  we  come  to  treat  of  it.  Wit  also  uses  it 
as  its  most  efficient  aid,  and  it  is  not  wanting,  though 
it  is  generally  out  of  place,  in  treatises  on  science.- 

Hyperbole  is  often  employed  in  argument,  to  show 
the  inconsistency  of  an  opponent's  position,  by  imagin- 
ing it  to  be  carried  out  into  extreme  results :  the  ef- 
fects of  alcoholic  drinks,  for  instance,  if  all  should 
drink ;  the  effects  of  infidelity,  if  mothers  and  children 
and  all  others  were  to  have  no  faith  in  God.  Such  a 
use  of  Hyperbole,  though  it  leads  to  the  most  extrava- 


RHETORIC. 

gant  conceptions,  is  justifiable,  if  kept  within  the  lim- 
its of  a  correct  logic. 

Poetical  Hyperbole  is  an  exaggeration  indulged  in 
simply  for  the  pleasure  of  exercising  the  imagination, 
and  is  as  proper  and  healthful  as  any  other  mental  ex. 
ercise,  confined  to  its  own  legitimate  territory. 

55.  Cautions  upon  the  Use  of  Hyperbole. — Several 
cautions,  however,  should  be  observed  in  its  employ- 
ment. 

(1.)  Let  it  be  used  sparingly.  Like  other  spice,  if 
excessive,  it  becomes  disagreeable. 

(2.)  Let  it  never  be  employed  when  a  person  of  or- 
dinary discrimination  would  not  be  able  to  understand 
its  real  meaning,  or  when  the  language  would  be  lia- 
ble to  be  literally  construed,  and  if  so,  would  convey 
injurious  or  pernicious  sentiment. 

(3.)  Let  it  not  be  used  in  any  production  where  sci- 
entific precision  might  justly  be  expected,  or  upon  any 
subject  in  which  extravagance  would  properly  be  con- 
sidered incongruous  and  offensive. 

(4.)  Let  it  not  be  sought,  but  be  employed  only 
when  strong  feeling  naturally  prompts  it. 

(5.)  Finally,  let  it  not  be  forgotten  that  the  common 
and  coarser  kinds  of  Hyperbole  are  characteristics  of 
ignorance,  and  are  more  and  more  discarded  as  the 
mind  becomes  disciplined  by  careful  thought  and  to 
accurate  expression.  It  is  only  the  undrscriminating 
who  pronounce  some  day  in  every  successive  summer 
the  hottest  they  ever  knew,  and  some  day  in  every 
winter  the  coldest,  the  last  good  sermon  they  heard 
the  best,  and  who  are  constantly  using  the  superlative 


LIPTOTEX.  l:r, 

degree.  Conversationists  of  this  kind  soon  cease  to  be 
credited  by  their.intelligent  friends,  and  speakers  and 
writers  who  abound  in  hyperboles  are  seldom  popular 
long,  or  if  so,  are  not  fully  believed  even  when  they 
tell  the  truth.  Hyperbole,  extravagantly  used,  degen- 
erates into  Bombast. 

56.  Liptotes. — This  is  precisely  the  reverse  of  Hy- 
perbole. It  is  a  form  of  thought  by  which,  in  seem- 
ing to  lessen,  we  actually  increase  the  force  of  an  ex- 
pression. Thus, .when  we  say,  "These  are  not  the 
words  of  a  child,"  we  mean  "  These  are  the  words 
of  a  wise  man."  "I  can  not  eulogize  such  a  man," 
means,  perhaps,  I  despise  him. 


138  UHETORIV. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

IRONY. 

57.  Definition. — IRONY  is  such  a  use  of  language 
as  will  convey  to  an  intelligent  hearer  a  meaning  pre- 
cisely opposite  to  what  the  language,  literally  under- 
stood, would  express. 

When  the  prophets  of  Baal  were  striving  in  vain 
by  cries  to  induce  some  demonstrations  of  the  pres- 
ence and  power  of  their  god,  Elijah,  the  prophet  of 
Jehovahj  tauntingly  said  to  them,  "  Cry  aloud :  for  he 
is  a  god !  Either  he  is  talking,  or  he  is  pursuing,  or 
he  is  in  a  journey,  or  perad venture  he  sleepeth,  and 
must  be  awaked  I" 

68.  How  Indicated. — Of  course,  in  the  use  of  Irony 
the  intonation  of  the  voice  must  be  such  as  will  indi- 
cate the  speaker's  real  meaning.  In  writing,  the 
punctuation  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  made  to  aid 
the  perception  of  the  reader.  Sometimes  the  inten- 
tion of  a  writer  to  be  ironical  is  not  perceived  by  the 
reader,  and  unfortunately  the  author  is  understood  to 
affirm  just  what  he  meant  to  make  appear  so  ridic- 
ulous that  no  one  would  believe  it.  Some  have 
thought  that  the  expression  of  the  Apostle  Paul  in  1 
Corinthians  xii.  16,  is  ironical,  and  should  be  printed 
in  this  way :  "  Nevertheless,  being  crafty,  I  caught  you 


PHILOSOPHY   OF  IRONY.  139 

with  guile !"  That  is,  "  IIow  absurd  to  suppose,  if 
what  I  have  said  is  true,  that  I  could  have  used  craft 
and  guile !" 

59.  The  Philosophy  of  Irony. — The  philosophy  of 
it  seems  to  be,  that  some  thoughts  which  the  author 
wishes  to  repel  are  so  manifestly  false  that  they  need 
only  to  be  distinctly  uttered  to  make  the  hearer  see 
their  falsity  and  reject  them  with  indignity.  Or,  if 
the  irony  is  playful,  the  hearer  is  pleased  with  the  in- 
genuity of  the  author,  who  can  express,  as  if  true, 
such  absurd  ideas.  The  absurdity  also  of  the  senti- 
ment is  clearly  exposed. 

Therefore,  Irony  has  two  offices :  to  expose  false 
sentiment  by  asserting  it  so  baldly  as  to  induce  oth- 
ers to  see  its  falsity,  and  to  present  ludicrously  in- 
consistent associations  as  though  true,  but  in  such  a 
way  as  to  amuse  and  perhaps  instruct  the  hearer. 
It  is  an  efficient  exposer  of  falsehood,  though  it  acts 
itself  under  the  guise  of  falsehood  (illustrating  the 
maxim  "that  it  takes  a  rogue  to  catch  a  rogue"). 

Thus  Shakspeare  represents  Marc  Antony  as  at- 
tempting artfully  to  inflame  the  Eoman  people  against 
Brutus  because  he  had  stabbed  Caesar ;  and  ever  and 
anon,  when  quoting  the  words  of  Brutus,  he  adds, 
"And  Brutus  is  an  honorable  man !" 

The  proper  intonation  intimates  that  Brutus  is  • 
very  dishonorable  man,  and  the  rabble  are  represent- 
ed as  soon  understanding  the  speaker. 

Mr.  Fox,  in  Parliament,  responded  to  an  opponent 
in  a  passage  that  has  often  been  quoted,  and  is  a  good 
specimen  of  Irony : 


14U  RHET(Jlil< 

"  'But  we  must  pause  !'  >:iys  the  honorable  gentleman.  If  a  man 
were  present  now  at  the  field  of  slaughter,  and  were  to  inquire  for 
what  they  were  fighting,  'Fighting !'  would  be  the  answer ;  'they  are 
not  fighting ;  they  are  pausing.'  Why  is  that  man  expiring  ?  Win- 
is  that  other  writhing  with  agony  ?  What  means  this  inexplicable 
fury  ?  The  answer  must  be,  'You  are  quite  wrong,  sir ;  you  deceive 
yourself;  they  are  not  fighting;  do  not  disturb  them  ;  they  are  mere- 
ly pausing!  Lord  help  you,  sir,  they  are  not  angry  with  one  another ; 
they  have  now  no  cause  of  quarrel,  but  their  country  thinks  that 
there  should  be  &  pause ."  '  ^ 

By  such  expressions  as  the  above,  Mr.  Fox  ridi- 
culed the  idea  that  had  been  advanced,  that  the  great 
events  then  occurring  were  simply  a  "  pause  "  in  his- 
tory. 

Dr.  Johnson,  in  his  indignant  letter  to  Lord  Ches- 
terfield, refusing  his  patronage  and  favor  which  were 
not  offered  till  he  began  to  be  popular  and  did  not 
need  assistance,  inquires :  "  Is  not  a  patron,  my  lord, 
one  who  looks  with  unconcern  on  a  man  struggling 
for  life  in  the  water,  and  when  he  has  reached  ground, 
encounters  him  with  help  ?"  Of  course  Johnson  does 
not  ask  such  a  question  for  information,  but  intends 
by  his  question  to  intimate  precisely  the  opposite  idea 
as  the  truth. 

Shakspeare,  that  great  master  of  almost  every  pas- 
sion, often  employs  Irony.  In  King  Lear,  Cordelia  is 
represented  as  ridiculing  a  blunt  plain-speaking  man 
as  coarse  and  rude,  thus : 

"This  is  some  fellow, 

Who,  having  been  praised  for  bluntness,  doth  affect 
A  saucy  roughness ;  and  constrains  the  garb, 
Quite  from  his  nature.     He  can  not  flatter,  he! 
An  honest  mind  and  plain,  he  must  speak  truth: 
An  they  will  take  it  so;  if  not,  'tis  plain." 


IRONY  IN   CONTROVERSY.  141 

The  words  printed  in  italics  are  a  repetition  by 
Cordelia  of  what  the  rough  man  is  supposed  to  say 
of  himself  craftily.  She  repeats  them,  to  show  their 
falsity,  simply  by  a  peculiar  emphasis.  This  kind  of 
irony  is  often  prompted  by  anger. 

60.  Irony  in  Controversy. — Controversialists  some- 
times resort  to  Irony  to  expose  the  ridiculousness  of 
the  errors  which  they  oppose.  Thus  Henry  Kogers* 
ironically  asks  deists  to  construct  a  book  as  ingenious 
and  powerful  as  the  Bible.  He  begs  of  them,  "  Do 
not  let  your  imaginative  forms  be  so  exquisite  as  to 
make  mankind  take  them  for  genuine  history"  [as 
they  have  taken  the  Bible]  ;  "  do  not,  I  warn  you,  so 
transcend  Homer  and  Shakspeare,  as  to  make  people 
fancy  your  fable  fact !  Or  else  not  only  will  you  fail 
of  your  object,  but  will  have  added  unexpectedly  an- 
other to  the  many  historical  religions !" 

This  is  exquisite  Irony,  as  is  the  whole  letter  from 
which  it  is  taken.  None  can  deny  the  efficiency  of 
this  weapon,  when  properly  used,  either  to  expose  er- 
ror, or  meanness,  or  ignorance,  or  vice. 

Archbishop  Haref  has  a  long  argument,  in  the 
form  of  a  letter,  to  dissuade  young  clergymen  from 
studying  the  Bible,  so  written  as  to  show  that  such  a 
neglect  as  it  pretends  to  advise  would  be  cowardly 
and  guilty.  Such  ironical  writing,  when  well  done, 
is  exceedingly  efficient. 

*  The  Greyson  Letters :  Selections  from  the  Correspondence  of 
R.  G.  H.  Greyson,  Esq.  Edited  by  Henry  Rogers  (Boston,  1857),  p. 
428. 

f  The  Works  of  Dr.  Francis  Hare,  Lord  Bishop  of  Chichester 
(London,  1746),  vol.  ii.  p.  1-38. 


142  RHETORIC. 

61.  //v>////  tiitewled  to  Amuse. — The  lighter  use  of 
Irony,  simply  to  amuse,  may  be  seen  principally  in 
humorous  productions.  Some  whole  volumes  have  a 
vein  of  irony  running  through  them ;  and  while  to 
superficial  readers  they  appear  to  be  sober,  are  really 
ridiculing  some  theory  or  practice.  This  covert,  gen- 
tle irony,  it  is,  that  gives  such  an  inexpressible  charm 
to  such  works,  as  "Don  Quixote,"  the  "Vicar  of 
Wakefield,"  and  many  of  the  writings  of  Dean  Swift 
and  Sydney  Smith.  Washington  Irving,  in  his  "  Knick- 
erbocker's History  of  New  York,"  has  given  us  some 
of  the  best  specimens  of  this  kind  of  irony.  We  have 
room  but  for  a  single  passage  : 

"  Of  the  creation  of  the  world  we  have  a  thousand  contradictory 
accounts ;  and  though  a  very  satisfactory  one  is  furnished  us  by  di- 
vine revelation,  yet  every  philosopher  feels  himself  in  honor  bound  to 
furnish  us  with  a  better.  As  an  impartial  historian,  I  consider  it  my 
duty  to  notice  their  several  theories,  by  which  mankind  have  been  so 
exceedingly  edified  and  instructed." 

Who  does  not  perceive  in  this  a  ridicule  of  the  ab- 
surd theories  of  the  origin  of  the  world  that  have  been 
promulgated  ? 

One  of  the  most  successful  specimens  of  ironical 
writing  is  a  pamphlet  written  by  the  witty  Irishman, 
Swift,  entitled,  "  A  Modest  Proposal  to  the  Public  for 
preventing  the  Children  of  Poor  People  in  Ireland 
from  being  a  Burden  to  their  Country,  and  for  making 
them  Beneficial  to  the  Public  ?"  The  "  modest  pro- 
posal "  is  that  the  little  children  be  fattened  and  used 
for  food !  He  enters  into  grave  statistical  calculations 
of  the  pecuniary  profit  of  such  a  course,  written  with 
such  an  appearance  of  candor  and  cool  brutality,  that 


ILLUSTRATION    OF  IROXY.  143 

it  is  said  a  contemporary  writer  in  France  was  actual- 
ly deceived  by  it,  and  denounced  it  as  horribly  inhu- 
man. The  design  of  Swift  was  to  censure  England 
for  an  alleged  disregard  for  the  rights  of  the  Irish 
people. 

Henry  Ward  Beecher  commends  fishing  thus: 

"Alas !  that  a  world  should  be  so  barbarous  as  to  condemn  piscato- 
ry sports  so  long  as  they  contribute  to  exercise  taste,  sentiment,  and 
moral  enjoyment ;  and  that  all  objection  ceases  when  a  man  can  prove 
that  he  labored  for  his  mouth  alone.  It  is  all  right,  if  it  was  eating 
that  he  had  in  mind.  The  frying-pan  is  in  universal  favor.  This  is 
the  modern  image  that  fell  down  from  heaven,  which  all  men  hold 
in  reverence  !"* 

In  the  above,  an  idea  which  the  author  disapproves 
is  first  soberly  stated.  It  is  then  repeated  in  other 
forms  again  and  again,  till  the  very  strength  of  state- 
ment begins  to  make  it  ridiculous,  and  the  mind  re- 
coils from  accepting  it,  when  it  becomes  Irony.  By 
the  punctuation  the  author  indicates  that  the  last  sen- 
tence alone  is  ironical.  We  think  the  two  preceding 
sentences  should  be  punctuated  in  the  same  way. 
This  gradual  sliding  into  irony  is  common  with  earn- 
est, eloquent  controversialists  who  have  a  vein  of  wit 
in  their  nature. 

62.  Ironical  Questions. — Irony  is  often  forcibly  ex- 
pressed in  the  form  of  questions: 

"Can  gray  hairs  render  folly  venerable?" 

Hon.  Mr.  Fessenden,  in  the  Senate,  inquired : 

"Are  we  not  men  of  some  degree  of  sense  and  discretion?  Are 
we  sent  here,  senators,  chosen  men  of  states,  representatives,  the  se- 

*  Star-Papers ;  or,  Experiences  of  Art  and  Nature.  By  Henry 
Ward  Beecher  (New  York,  1855),  p.  238. 


144  RHETORIC. 

lectmen  of  the  people  in  the  several  districts,  without  any  idea  what- 
ever of  a  correct  course  of  proceeding  in  this  matter  ?" 

So  Hon.  Mr.  Corwin  represented  the  people  of 
Mexico  as  saying : 

"Have  you  not  room  in  your  own  country  to  bury  your  dead 
men  ?  If  you  come  into  mine,  we  will  greet  you — with  bloody  hands, 
and  welcome  you — to  hospitable  graves !" 

Such  questions  are  not  asked  because  they  require 
an  answer,  but  because  the  very  opposite  to  what  they 
suggest  is  true ;  they  are  therefore  Irony. 

63.  Directions  upon  the  Use  of  Irony. — The  follow- 
ing directions  on  the  use  of  Irony  should  be  observed; 

(1.)  Let  it  be  suited  to  the  subject  and  occasion. 
If  light  and  humorous,  let  it  not  be  associated  with 
grave  instruction,  or  the  earnest  expression  of  feel- 
ing, so  as  to  awaken  a  sense  of  inconsistency.  If  se- 
vere and  sarcastic,  be  sure  that  the  occasion  will  justi- 
fy it. 

(2.)  In  oral  productions  the  intonations  of  the  voice 
should  always  indicate  Irony  when  it  is  employed; 
in  written  productions  be  careful,  either  by  giving 
some  intimation  of  your  purpose,  or  by  the  punctua- 
tion, to  enable  the  reader  to  perceive  your  meaning, 
so  as  not  to  mistake  Irony  for  the  direct  expression 
of  sentiment,  unless,  indeed,  it  be  your  sober  purpose 
to  leave  your  expressions  obscure,  or  to  test  the  men- 
tal ability  of  your  reader. 

(3.)  Do  not  neglect  to  cultivate  the  use  of  so  effi- 
cient a  weapon,  but  bear  in  mind  that  the  frequent 
use  of  Irony  is  unpleasant  to  a  well-cultivated  taste. 


PEMS  ON1FI CA  TION.  \  45 


CHAPTER  IX. 

PERSONIFICATION  AND   PROSOPOPCEIA. 

64.  Definition. — WHEN  a  lifeless  object  is  represent- 
ed or  addressed  as  though  it  had  life,  it  is  said  to  be 
personified. 

65.  Philosophy  of  it. — Personification  is  a  natural 
expression  of  strong  feeling  connected  with  the  object 
personified.     A  child  will  often  vent  his  anger  upon 
u  stone  or  stick  by  which  he  has  been  struck,  and 
older  persons  who  have  not  yet  passed  out  of  the 
childhood  stage  of  development  are  sometimes  betray- 
ed into  similar  folly.     Many  who  would  not  strike  an 
insensible  object  may  often  feel  an  impulse  to  blame 
it.     When  we  censure  or  praise  a  senseless  thing,  we 
fancy  it  for  the  time  endowed  with  life.     What  seems 
unreasonable  in  its  rudimentary  manifestations  may, 
if  done  in  a  cultivated  manner,  please  the  taste  and 
task  the  highest  mental  energy. 

66.  First  Degree  of  Personification.  —  Personification 
/exists  in  three  degrees.     In  Personification  of  the  first 
/degree  the  object  is  presented  as  having  some  quali 

'•  ties  that  properly  belong  only  to  living  creatures. 

Thus  we  speak  of  an  obedient  ship,  or  say  that  a 
house  befriends  a  weary  traveller.  This  degree  of 
Personification  is  most  frequently  exhibited  by  the 
use  of  some  appellative  that  strictly  applies  only  to 

G 


140  RHET01U* 

living  beings.  In  many  instances  this  has  become  so 
common,  and  in  many  others  it  requires  so  little  effort 
of  the  imagination,  that  it  is  scarcely  noticed.  Trees 
are  called  majestic,  rivers  or  breezes  gentle,  the  spring 
is  said  to  smife,  and  winter  is  termed  frmvn iny,  with 
no  conscious  excitement  or  extraordinary  effort  of  the 
mind. 

67.  Often  indicated  by  the  Use  of  Personal  Pronouns 
7  Genders. — This  degree  of  Personification  is  oft- 
en exhibited  by  simply  using  the  masculine  or  femi- 
nine pronoun  instead  of  the  neuter.  Thus  a  boat  is 
represented  as  a  female,  war  as  a  male,  in  these  ex- 
pressions :  "  Pull  a  stroke  or  two — away  with  her  into 
deep  water;"  "War  then  showed  his  devastations." 

In  a  well-written  review  article  we  read : 

'•  Liberalism  was  rising  steadily  on  all  sides.  Was  the  Church  to 
be  a  Church,  to  oppose  her  advancing  enemy,  to  curse  him,  to  have 
no  terms  with  himf 

In  this  sentence  Liberalism  is  spoken  of  as  a  man, 
or  a  masculine  enemy,  the  Church  (as  often  in  the  Bi- 
ble) is  spoken  of  as  a  woman.  The  reviewer  adds 
another  sentence,  in  which  he  begins  with  the  same 
personification,  but  absurdly  mixes  his  metaphors,  and 
metamorphoses  the  woman  into  a  ship,  thus : 

"  Or  was  she  [the  Church]  to  let  him  [Liberalism]  in,  to  become  a 
mere  receptacle  for  sects,  and  gradually  drift  away  with  the  liberal 
tide  from  her  old  orthodox  moorings?" 

It  would  be  strange  indeed  to  see  a  woman  "  drift 
away  from  her  moorings?" 
An  eloquent  writer  says  : 

"  Science  can  not  work  with  a  halter  about  her  neck." 


INSTANCES    OF  PERSONIFICATION.  147 

Kev.  Dr.  Hitchcock,  in  speaking  of  the  effects  of 
old  age,  says : 

"  The  mind,  too,  dependent  on  bodily  organization  by  unalterable 
laws  for  its  free  exercise,  sympathizes  in  the  decline  of  the  physical 
powers.  The  proud  heights  which  she  once  scaled  can  no  longer  be 
reached ;  the  heavy  blows  which  she  once  dealt  out  can  no  longer  be 
given.  *  *  *  First  of  all,  the  memory  feels  the  change,  and  reels, 
and  staggers,  and  sinks  under  her  charge.  Next,  the  judgment  be- 
gins to  waver ;  and,  last  of  all,  tire  imagination  comes  fluttering  to 
the  earth." 

Eev.  Dr.  Bellows,  in  a  sermon,  thus  represents 
truth : 

"Truth  is  as  jealous,  capricious,  and  shy  a  mistress  as  was  ever 
wooed.  She  eludes  her  lover  as  a  hunted  deer  her  pursuer.  Her 
votary  must  follow  her  in  all  the  circuits  and  involutions  of  her 
flight — now  doubling  on  her  track,  now  making  the  North  Star,  and 
now  the  Southern  Cross  her  beacon— now  on  the  earth,  now  in  water 
or  wood,  and  again  in  the  sky,  but  always  having  it  for  her  purpose 
to  lead  her  wooer  through  every  parallel  and  point  of  latitude  and 
longitude  in  her  domain,  that  he  may  view  her  and  her  possessions 
from  all  quarters  of  the  moral  compass,  and  see  her  full  shape  and 
whole  fortune — and  so  be  the  more  in  love  with  his  holy,  heavenly 
bride,  his  destined  partner  for  eternity.* 

*  Sometimes  we  meet  with  her  and  his  instead  of  its  in  the  English 
Bible,  and  in  other  ancient  books,  when  no  personification  was  in- 
tended ;  for  its,  the  possessive  case  of  it,  is  a  modern  word,  and  be- 
gan to  be  used  only  about  the  middle  of  the  IGth  century,  and  did 
not  become  common  till  many  years  after.  In  such  expressions  as 
"It  shall  bruise  thy  head,  and  thou  shalt  bruise  his  heel;"  "Put 
up  thy  sword  into  fa's  place,"  in  the  Bible,  there  is  no  personification, 
because  the  neuter  possessive  pronoun  its  was  not  then  used.  From 
an  ignorance  of  this  fact,  Dr.  Jamieson,  in  his  Rhetoric,  wrongly 
charges  Milton  with  using  a  false  gender  in  this  passage : 

41  His  form 

Had  not  lost  all  Tier  original  brightness, 
Nor  appeared  less  than  archangel  rained." 

Milton  did  not  wish  to  use  its,  which  was  then  a  novel  word ;  in- 
deed he  employed  it  only  two  or  three  times  in  his  "Paradise  Lost." 
In  this  case,  forma,  the  Latin  word  for  form,  being  feminine,  he 


Personification  by  the  use  of  appellatives  is  very 
common ;  by  the  use  of  personal  pronouns  indicating 
gender  it  is  less  common,  and  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  employ  it  so  frequently  as  to  betray  a  manner- 
ism, and  offend  good  taste. 

68.  Personification  of  the  Second  Degree.  —  The  sec- 
lond  degree  of  Personification  is  the  representation 
of  an  object  as  acting,  or  manifesting  emotion,  like  a 
thing  of  life. 

"  Decay  stands  with  tottering  limbs  and  feeble  breath,  and  lisps  to 
us,  with  dying  life,  that  we  draw  nigh  the  gates." 

then  proceeded  south,  where  the  six  gigantic  columns  rear- 
ed their  heads  above  the  ruins." 

How  much  more  forcible  is  this  than  to  say, "  The  six 
gigantic  columns  extended  upward  above  the  ruins." 
Prescott,  in  plain  narrative  style,  says : 

"  A  river,  a  chain  of  mountains,  an  imaginary  line  even,  parted 
them  [nations]  as  far  asunder  as  if  oceans  rolled  between." 

Cowper  expressed  the  same  thought  far  more  forci- 
bly by  personification,  when  he  said  : 

"  Lands  intersected  by  a  narrow  frith 
Abhor  each  other." 

"  The  great  watcVstars,"  says  Everett,  "shut  up  their  holy  eyes." 
If  the  student  carefully  reads  the  best  authors,  he 
will  find  that  personification  of  this  degree  is  much 
less  common  than  the  first  degree.    Indeed  many  vig- 
orous writers  and  eloquent  orators  never  employ  it. 

chose  her  for  the  possessive  case  rather  than  his.  Its  is  found  in 
some  copies  of  the  English  Bible  once,  in  Leviticus  xxv.  5 — "that 
which  groweth  of  its  own  accord ;"  but  the  translators  even  here 
originally  used  the  word  it. 


N  FOR    CONCISENESS.      149 

If  used  too  frequently,  the  style  appears  affected  and 
stilted. 

69.  Sometimes  employed  for  Conciseness  and  Conven- 
ience only. — There  are,  however,  personifications  of  this 
kind,  which  are  employed  not  as  expressions  of  ex- 
cited feeling,  but  as  convenient  condensations,  to  avoid 
circumlocutions,  and  the  frequent  repetitions  of  long 
descriptions.  Thus  the  word  "  nature  "  is  used  as 
though  it  were  the  name  of  a  person,  when  evidently 
the  author  does  not  intend  to  personify  any  fancied 
being  or  power,  but  it  is  more  convenient  to  use  that 
appellation  than  some  such  expression  as  "  the  plan 
according  to  which  material  things  act,"  or  "  the  prop- 
erties which  this  subject  has ;"  and  it  is  more  conven- 
ient to  represent  it  as  a  person  than  to  speak  of  the 
phenomena  described  as  simple  effects. 

"Nature  preserves  a  wonderful  harmony  among 
the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms."  That  is,  the 
plan  on  which  the  universe  is  constructed  is  such  that 
a  wonderful  harmony  is  preserved.  Professor  Tyn- 
dall,  in  his  treatise  on  "  Heat,  a  Mode  of  Motion," 
speaking  of  the  chilling  and  freezing  of  the  surface  of 
a  lake,  and  the  sinking  of  the  cold  water  to  the  bot- 
tom, says : 

"Supposing  this  to  continue,  the  ice  would  sink  as  it  was  formed, 
and  the  process  would  not  cease  until  the  entire  water  of  the  lake 
would  be  solidified.  Death  to  every  living  thing  in  the  water  would 
be  the  consequence.  But  just  when  matters  become  critical,  Nature 
steps  aside  from  her  ordinary  proceeding,  causes  the  water  to  expand  by 
cooling,  and  the  cold  water  swims  like  a  scum  on  the  surface  of  the 
warmer  water  underneath." 

This  use  of  the  word  nature  is  so  common  that 


150  RHETORIC. 

another  illustration  may  not  be  inappropriate,  taken 
from  a  sermon  by  Kev.  Dr.  Huntington.  Speaking  of 
Nature,  he  says : 

"  Just  when  she  discloses  to  our  perceptions  any  of  her  grandest 
pictures,  she  shuts  our  lips.  Whenever  she  stirs  our  sense  of  the  sub- 
lime, she  sternly  tells  us,  '  My  children,  be  dumbl' " 

This  is  genuine  Personification.  But  often,  as  in  the 
former  instances,  the  word  is  used  as  a  convenient  sin- 
gle term  or  symbol  for  "  the  plan  of  existing  things." 
If  the  word  God  is  used  instead  of  Nature,  it  expresses 
a  different  idea,  directing  the  attention  to  an  intelli- 
gent, powerful  person  ;  but  the  word  "  nature  "  simply 
indicates  that  the  system  of  material  things  is  such 
that  the  result  must  follow. 

In  the  same  way  war,  peace,  commerce,  govern- 
ment, law,  education,  industry,  order,  temperance,  vir- 
tue, vice,  every  particular  passion,  and  almost  every 
complex  agency,  may  be  personified,  or  represented 
as  acting,  and  producing  effects,  when  the  author  does 
not  intend  to  express  unwonted  emotion,  but  simply 
finds  it  the  most  convenient  in  this  way  to  express 
his  views  of  the  influence  of  the  thing  considered. 

We  subjoin  a  few  instances: 

"Logic  does  not,  like  philosophy,  enunciate  any  particular  truths, 
hut  teaches  the  principles  of  universal  reasoning." 

Strictly  speaking,  this  is  Personification,  which  is 
used  to  avoid  some  such  circumlocution  as  this :  "  In 
treatises  on  logic,  pupils  are  not  taught,"  etc. 
"  What  tongue  shall  describe  the  ravages  of  the  sword  ?" 
"Of  the  sword"  instead  of  " produced  by  war." 


L' OX  VISE   PERSONIFICATIU.\^  151 

"Photography  presents  for  us  the  lineaments  of  our  loved  ones 
long  since  departed." 

Such  an  expression  might  arise  frdm  strong  emo- 
tion, and  a  desire  to  eulogize  photography,  and  might 
be  employed  as  a  convenient  single  term  instead  of 
many, which  would  be  scientifically  more  correct. 

Often  by  a  little  study  a  writer  may  condense  his 
style,  and  at  the  same  time  render  it  more  vigorous, 
by  this  kind  of  personification. 

Washington  gives  us  a  good  instance  of  this  kind 
of  personification,  which  even  rises  into  the  higher  and 
genuine  figure,  when  in  his  first  Inaugural  Address  as 
President  he  says  : 

"  I  was  summoned  by  my  country,  whose  voice  I  can  never  hear  but 
with  veneration  and  love,  from  a  retreat  which  I  had  chosen,  with  the 
fondest  predilection  and  in  my  flattering  hopes,  with,  an  immutable  de- 
cision, as  the  asylum  of  my  declining  years." 

How  much  more  striking  is  the  following  than  it 
would  be  if  for  genius,  as  a  person,  were  substituted 
the  many  words  necessary  to  express  the  same  idea 
scientifically  : 

"  Genius  has  surrounded  your  homes  with  comfort,  has  given  you 
control  of  the  blind  forces  of  nature,  and  made  the  flowers  of  paradise 
bloom  in  the  poor  man's  garden." 

How  much  thought  is  condensed  into  this  vigorous 
expression  of  Wendell  Phillips :  "  The  Press  says,  It 
is  all  right;  the  Pulpit  cries,  Amen !" 

Is  not  a  philosophical  truth  nervously  expressed  by 
these  words :  "  When  Feeling  comes  in  at  the  door, 
Reason  has  nothing  to  do  but  .to  jump  out  by  the  win- 
dow?" 


152  KHETOKIC. 

Let  the  student  carefully  notice  the  prevalence  of 
this  figure  in  good  writings,  and  endeavor  to  ascertain 
whether  it  is  resorted  to  as  a  result  of  strong  emotion 
and  a  lively  fancy,  or  from  mere  economy  of  speech, 
and  the  study  will  naturally  improve  his  own  style. 

70.  Used  in  Allegories,  and  in  Humorous  Productions. 
— It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add  that  in  allegories  Per- 
sonifications are  almost  always  employed,  and  that  in 
humorous  productions  often  nations  or  national  char- 
acteristics are  represented  as  persons.  "John  Bull" 
represents  England,  or  an  Englishman ;  "  Brother  Jon- 
athan," the  United  States,  or  an  American.  The  an- 
cients, from  their  numerous  idols  and  complicated 
mythology,  could  employ  a  kind  of  personification  of 
this  nature  more  than  the  moderns. 

An  instance  in  which  Personification  is  extended, 
and  is  by  some  called  an  Allegory,  is  afforded  by  John 
Quincy  Adams  in  his  description  of  Eloquence: 

"  At  the  revival  of  letters  in  modern  Europe,  Eloquence,  together 
with  her  sister  muses,  awoke  and  shook  the  poppies  from  her  brow. 
But  their  torpors  still  lingered  in  her  veins.  In  the  interval  her  voice 
was  gone  ;  her  favorite  languages  were  extinct ;  her  organs  were  no 
longer  attuned  to  harmony,  and  her  hearers  could  no  longer  under- 
stand her  speech.  *  *  *  She  ascended  the  tribunals  of  justice;  there 
she  found  her  child,  Persuasion,  manacled  and  pinioned  by  the  let- 
ter of  the  law;  there  she  beheld  the  image  of  herself,  stammering  in 
, barbarous  Latin,  and  staggering  under  the  lumber  of  a  thousand  vol- 
umes." 

This  long  description,  of  which  we  have  given  only 
a  small  part,  is  not  an  Allegory,  as  it  does  not  suggest 
to  us  any  other  meaning  than  that  which  lies  on  its 
surface.  It  is  simply  an  extended  Personification  of 
the  second  degree.  Such  long-drawn-out  personifica- 


THIRD   DEGREE   OF  PERSONIFICATION.     153 

tions  must  be  executed  with  great  skill,  or  they  weary 
without  instructing.  Properly  wrought,  they  relieve 
didactic  writing. 

71.  The  Third  Degree  of  Personification. — The  third 
/degree  of  Personification  is  seen  when  an  object  is  ad- 
dressed as  if  alive,  and  listening  to  the  speaker. 

When  the  mind  is  sufficiently  aroused,  this  boldest 
kind  of  Personification  is  pre-eminently  forcible  and 
beautiful.  Thus  Edward  Everett,  at  the  conclusion 
of  an  essay  on  comets,  having  awakened  a  great  inter- 
est in  the  subject,  and  described  glowingly  the  beau- 
ties and  sublimity  of  the  starry  heavens,  suddenly 
makes  the  following  address  to  one  then  visible : 

"  Return,  thou  mysterious  traveller,  to  the  depths  of  the  heavens, 
never  again  to  be  seen  by  the  eyes  of  men  now  living !  Thou  hast 
run  thy  race  with  glory  ;  millions  of  eyes  have  gazed  upon  tlice  with 
wonder ;  but  they  shall  never  look  upon  thee  again.  Since  thy  last 
appearance  in  these  lower  skies,  empires,  languages,  and  races  of  men 
have  passed  away.  *  *  *  Haply  when,  wheeling  up  again  from  the 
celestial  abysses,  thou  art  once  more  seen  by  the  dwellers  on  earth,  the 
languages  we  speak  shall  also  be  forgotten,  and  science  shall  have  fled  to 
the  uttermost  corners  of  the  earth.  But  even  there  His  hand,  that 
now  marks  out  thy  wondrous  circuit,  shall  still  guide  thy  course,  and 
then  as  now  Hesper  unll  smile  at  thy  approach,  and  Arcturus,  with  his 
\  sons,  rejoice  at  thy  coming." 

The  student  will  observe  that  the  passages  italicized 
in  the  above  indicate  also  Personifications  of  the  second 
degree. 

72.  When  may  this  Degree  be  employed? — Personifi- 
cation of  this  kind  need  not  be  confined  to  the  sublim- 
est  subjects  or  to  oratorical  writing.     It  is  only  need- 
ful that  the  circumstances  should  render  it  appropri- 
ate.    When  Robinson  Crusoe  is  represented  as  ship- 

02 


154  JUIETOR1C. 

\\-rccked  and  cast  on  the  desolate  island,  and  as  finding 
some  money,  the  narrative  thus  proceeds : 

"  I  smiled  to  myself  at  the  sight  of  this  money.  *  Oh,  drag  !'  I  ex- 
claimed,  '  what  art  thou  good  for  ?  Thou  an  not  worth  to  me,  no,  not 
the  taking  off  the  ground ;  one  of  these  knives  is  worth  all  this  heap ; 
I  have  no  manner  of  use  for  thee ;  e'en  remain  where  thou  art,  and  go 
to  the  bottom^  as  a  creature  not  worth  saving.' " 

This  is  natural  and  impressive. 

73.  How  much  Used. — It  would  be  easy  to  fill  this 
volume  with  beautiful  specimens  of  Personification. 
Especially  does  it  abound  in  poetry.  It  is  also  often 
found  in  oratory.  Yet  many  eminent  orators  never 
use  what  we  call  Personification  of  the  third  degree, 
and  you  may  read  hundreds  of  volumes  in  prose  with- 
out a  single  example.  Many  elegant  speakers  have 
never  employed  it  once. 

How  sublime  is  Milton's  oft -quoted  address  to 
Light ! 

"  Hail !  holy  Light,  offspring  of  Heaven,  first-born, 
Or  of  the  Eternal,  co-eternal  beam, 
May  I  express  thee  unblamed— since  God  is  light, 
And  never  but  in  unapproached  light 
Dwelt  from  eternity,  dwelt  thou  in  thee, 
Bright  effluence  of  bright  essence  increate  ?" 

Not  less  sublime  is  Byron's  address  to  the  Ocean, 
beginning  thus : 

"Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  ocean,  roll ! 
Ten  thousand  fleets  sweep  over  thee  in  vain : 
Man  marks  the  earth  with  ruin  ;  his  control 
Stops  with  thy  shore ;  upon  the  watery  plain 
The  wrecks  are  all  thy  deed,  nor  doth  remain 
A  shadow  of  man's  ravage,  save  his  o\vn, 
When,  for  a  moment,  like  a  drop  of  rain, 
He  sinks  into  thy  depths,  with  bubbling  groan, 
Without  a  grave,  unknelled,  uncoffined,  and  unknown." 


MULES    ON  PERSONIFICATION.  155 

Oftentimes  thus  by  personification  much  thought 
and  instruction  can  be  conveyed,  under  the  guise  of 
referring  to  the  qualities  and  circumstances  of  the  ob- 
ject addressed.  Thus  Shakspeare  says  to  Sleep  : 

"  Oh,  thou  dull  god  !     Why  licst  thou  with  the  vile, 
In  loathsome  beds,  and  leavest  the  kingly  couch 
A  watch-case,  or  a  common  'larum-bell  ? 
Wilt  thou,  upon  the  high  and  giddy  mast, 
Seal  up  the  ship-boy's  eyes,  and  rock  his  brains 
In  cradle  of  the  rude,  imperious  surge?  *  *  * 
Canst  thou,  oh,  partial  sleep  I  give  thy  repose 
To  the  wet  sea-boy  in  an  hour  so  rude, 
And,  in  the  calmest  and  the  stillest  night, 
With  all  appliances  and  means  to  boot, 
Deny  it  to  a  king  ?    Then,  happy,  low,  lie  down,  J  , 

head  that  wears  a  crown."         ^£tt4  "#£<££,/ 


This  figure  is  often  used  in  Wit  and  Burlesque. 

74.  Directions  cm  Use  of  Personifica 

(1.)  Personification  of  the  higher  degrees  should  be 
used  sparingly,  or  the  style  will  appear  too  artistic  to 
please  the  taste. 

(2.)  The  occasion  should  always  justify  its  use. 

(3.)  Let  it  not  be  dwelt  upon  too  long,  and  the  idea 
of  personality  be  carried  out  so  far  as  to  weary  or  dis- 
please the  hearer. 

75.  Prosopopoeia.  —  Personification  is  sometimes  term- 
ed Prosopopoeia,  but,  strictly  speaking,  Prosopopoeia 
is  more  general,  and  includes  all  kinds  of  speaking 
in  which  the  speaker  represents  for  the  time  either  a 
personified  thing  or  a  person  absent  or  deceased.     It 
therefore  includes  both  Personification  and  Apostro- 
phe, which  is  more  fully  explained  in  the  next  chap- 
ter. 


156  RHETORIC. 


CHAPTER  X. 

APOSTROPHE. 

76.  Definition,  and  Examples. — A  sudden  turning 
away  from  the  current  of  thought  to  address  another 
person  or  party,  or  an  absent  or  deceased  person  as 
though  present  and  alive,  is  called  Apostrophe. 

This  figure  of  speech  is  often  combined  or  asso- 
ciated with  Personification.  It  exhibits  intense  feel- 
ing, and,  if  the  occasion  justifies  it,  is  impressive  and 
efficient 

The  following,  from  a  prize  essay  on  Education  by 
Dr.  Hamilton,  is  a  specimen  of  an  impressive  style, 
and  contains  an  Apostrophe : 

"The  nature  of  man  is  the  shoal  on  which  all  infidel  philosophy, 
and,  if  it  can  be,  all  infidel  benevolence,  are  wrecked.  These  can 
not  explain  him.  They  mark  contrasts  in  him  which  they  can  not 
reconcile.  The  great  and  the  little,  the  strong  and  the  weak,  the 
divine  and  the  infernal,  they  can  not  adjust.  His  origin  they  can 
not  deduce.  His  recovery  they  can  not  meditate.  They  may  ex- 
plore all  secrete,  and  master  all  difficulties  but  this.  Christianity 
alone  makes  it  plain.  Man  is  great,  but  fallen ;  is  strong,  but  sin- 
ning; is  divine,  br:  debased:  therefore  is  he  spiritually  little,  weak, 
infernal.  It  brings  him  back  to  spiritual  greatness,  strength,  and 
divinity.  It  shows  him  all  that  he  was,  is,  and  shall  be.  It  explains 
the  intermediate  stages  and  processes.  It  accounts  for  all.  Man  ! 
taught  by  this  religion,  I  can  abhor  thee,  dread  thee,  reverence  thee,  be- 
moan thee,  shun  thee,  Jlee  thee  !  But  oh,  fearful,  mysterious  being,  I 
can  not  slight  thee  /"* 

*  The  Institutions  of  Popular  Education.  An  Essay  to  which  tho 
Manchester  Prize  was  adjudged.  By  the  Rev.  Richard  Winter  Ham- 
ilton, D.D.,  LL.D.  (London,  1845),  p.  34. 


INSTANCES    OF  APOSTROPHE.  157 

All  can  see  that  turning  from  the  descriptive  cur- 
rent of  thought  to  address  man,  adds  great  energy  to 
the  passage. 

The  following  characteristic  quotation  from  Car- 
lyle's  Essay  on  Sir  Walter  Scott  exhibits  the  same 
figure : 

"  To  omit  mere  prurient  susceptivities  that  rest  on  vacuum,  look  at 
poor  Byron,  who  really  had  much  substance  in  him.  Sitting  there 
in  his  self-exile,  with  a  proud  heart  striving  to  persuade  itself  that  it 
despises  the  entire  created  universe ;  and  far  off,  in  foggy  Babylon,  let 
any  pitifullest  whipster  draw  pen  on  him,  your  proud  Byron  writhes  in 
torture,  as  if  the  pitiful  whipster  were  a  magician,  or  his  pen  a  gal- 
vanic wire  struck  into  Byron's  spinal  marrow  !  Lamentable,  despi- 
cable, one  had  rather  be  a  kitten  and  cry  mew !  Oh,  son  of  Adam, 
great  or  little,  according  as  thou  art  lovable,  those  thou  livest  with 
will  love  thee !" 

This  is  a  figure  frequently  employed  by  Carlyle  in 
his  disjointed,  jerking  style.  .  Take  another  specimen 
from  the  same  essay : 

"The  most  famed  man,  round  whom  all  the  world  rapturously 
hnzzahs  and  venerates,  as  if  his  like  were  not,  is  the  same  man  whom 
all  the  world  was  wont  to  jostle  into  the  kennels  ;  not  a  changed  man, 
but  iu  every  fibre  of  him  the  same  man.  Foolish  world  !  what  went 
ye  out  to  see  ?  A  tankard  scoured  bright !  And  do  there  not  lie,  of 
the  self-same  pewter,  whole  barrowfuls  of  tankards,  though  by  worse 
fortune  all  in  the  same  state  ?" 

The  frequency  with  which  this  figure  is  employed 
in  impassioned  oratory  will  justify  the  presentation  of 
other  illustrations  of  it.  Edward  Everett,  in  a  eulogy 
pronounced  on  La  Fayette,  introduces  the  following 
apostrophes : 

"You  have  now  assembled  within  these  sacred  walls  to  perform 
the  last  duties  of  respect  and  love,  on  the  birthday  of  your  benefac- 
tor, beneath  that  roof  which  has  resounded  of  old  with  the  master- 
voices  of  American  renown.  Listen,  Americans,  to  the  lessons  which 


158 

seem  borne  to  us  on  the  very  air  we  breathe,  while  we  perform  these 
dutiful  rites.  Ye  winds,  that  wafted  the  Pilgrims  to  the  land  of  prom- 
ise, fan  in  their  children's  hearts  the  love  of  freedom !  Blood,  which 
our  father's  shed,  cry  from  the  ground !  Echoing  arches  of  this  re- 
nowned hall,  whisper  back  the  voices  of  other  days !  Glorious  Wash- 
ington, break  the  long  silence  of  that  votive  canvas:  speak,  speak, 
marble  lips,  teach  us  the  love  of  liberty  protected  by  law." 

Nothing  but  intense  feeling  in  the  speaker,  shared 
by  the  audience,  would  justify  such  an  appeal,  not  sur- 
passed by  any  thing  in  ancient  or  modern  oratory ; 
but  the  occasion  did  justify  it,  and  when  Everett  ut- 
tered those  words,  the  audience,  swayed  by  his  power, 
seemed,  while  in  perfect  silence  they  followed  the  gest- 
ure of  the  orator,  and  gazed  first  upon  the  portrait 
and  then  upon  the  statue  of  Washington,  to  expect 
every  instant  to  hear  the  canvas  or  the  marble  speak ! 

77.  Remarks  by  Everett  upon  Apostrophe. — Some  ex- 
cellent remarks  upon  this  figure  of  Rhetoric  are  given 
by  Edward  Everett  in  his  review  of  the  speeches  of 
Webster.*  Speaking  of  an  orator,  he  says : 

"  In  those  portions  of  his  discourse  which  are  pure- 
ly didactic  or  narrative,  he  will  not  be  apt  to  rise — he 
will  not  have  occasion  to  rise — above  his  notes,  though 
even  here  new  facts,  illustrations,  and  suggestions  will 
spring  up  before  him  as  he  moves  on.  But  when  the 
topic  rises,  and  the  strain  becomes  loftier  and  bolder, 
the  thick-coming  fancies  can  not  be  repelled;  the 
whole  storehouse  of  the  memory  is  unlocked,  its  most 
hidden  shrines  fly  open — all  that  has  been  seen,  heard, 
read,  felt,  returns  in  most  vivid  colors — the  cold  and 
premeditated  text  will  no  longer  suffice  for  the  glow- 

*  See  North  American  Review,  voL  xli.  pp.  231-2.">1. 


EVERETT    ON  APOSTROPHE.  159 

ing  thought — the  stately-balanced  phrase  gives  place 
to  some  fresh  and  graphic  expression  that  rushes  un- 
bidden to  the  lips — the  unforeseen  locality  or  incident 
furnishes  an  apt  and  speaking  image — and  the  whole 
discourse,  by  a  kind  of  unconscious  instinct,  trans- 
poses itself  into  a  kind  of  higher  key.  As  the  best  il- 
lustration of  our  remark,  and  proof  of  its  justice,  we 
subjoin  one  of  the  most  eloquent  passages  that  ever 
dropped  from  the  lips  of  man,  the  address  [by  Daniel 
Webster]  to  the  survivors  of  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill, 
and  the  apostrophe  to  Warren.  Those  were  topics  of 
course  too  obvious  and  essential,  in  an  address  on  lay- 
ing the  corner-stone  of  the  monument,  to  have  been 
omitted  in  the  orator's  notes.  But  the  man  who  sup- 
poses that  the  apostrophe  to  Warren  was  elaborated 
in  the  closet  and  committed  to  memory,  may  know  a 
great  deal  about  contingent  remainders,  but  his  heart 
must  be  as  dry  and  hard  as  a  remainder  biscuit.  He 
knows  nothing  of  eloquence,  or  the  philosophy  of  the 
human  mind.  We  quote  it,  the  rather  because  in  the 
slight  grammatical  inaccuracy,  produced  by  passing 
from  the  third  person  to  the  second  in  the  same  sen- 
tence, we  perceive  at  once  one  of  the  most  natural 
consequences,  and  a  most  unequivocal  proof  of  the 
want  of  premeditation.  When  the  sentence  com- 
menced, c  But — ah !  him,'  it  was  evidently  in  the  mind 
of  the  orator  to  close  it  by  saying,  { how  shall  I  com- 
memorate him  ?'  But  in  the  progress  of  the  sentence, 
forgetful,  unconscious  of  the  words,  but  glowing  and 
melting  with  the  thought ;  beholding,  as  he  stood  near 
the  spot  where  the  hero  fell,  his  beloved  and  beauti- 


1GU  RHETORIC. 

fill  image  rising  up  from  beneath  the  sod  'with  the 
rose  of  heaven  upon  his  cheek  and  the  fire  of  liberty 
in  his  eye' — '  the  blood  of  his  gallant  heart  still  pour- 
ing from  his  wound ' — he  no  longer  can  speak  ofhim ; 
he  must  speak  to  him.  The  ghost  of  Samuel  did  not 
more  distinctly  rise  before  Saul  than  the  image  of  War- 
ren stood  forth  to  the  mental  perception  of  the  orator. 
He  no  longer  attempts  to  tell  his  audience  what  War- 
ren was,  but  passing  from  the  third  person  to  the  sec- 
ond, he  can  only  say,  *  How  shall  I  struggle  with  the 
emotions  that  stifle  the  utterance  of  thy  name !'  The 
sorriest  pedant  alone  would  have  turned  away  from 
that  touching  appeal  to  Warren  himself,  present,  visi- 
ble to  the  mind's  eye,  on  the  spot  where  he  fell,  be- 
cause he  had  commenced  the  sentence  in  the  third 
person.  But  we  quote  the  whole  passage: 

"  *  But,  alas,  you  are  not  all  here !  Time  and  the 
sword  have  thinned  your  ranks.  Prescott,  Putnam, 
Stark,  Brooks,  Read,  Pomeroy,  Bridge!  Our  eyes 
seek  for  you  in  vain  amid  this  broken  band.  You  are 
gathered  to  your  fathers,  and  live  only  to  your  coun- 
try, in  her  grateful  remembrance  and  your  own  bright 
example.  But  let  us  not  too  much  grieve  that  you 
have  met  the  common  fate  of  men.  You  lived  at 
least  long  enough  to  know  that  your  work  had  been 
nobly  and  successfully  accomplished.  You  lived  to 
see  your  country's  independence  established,  and  to 
sheathe  your  swords  from  war.  On  the  light  of  lib- 
erty, you  saw  arise  the  light  of  peace,  like 

"  "  'Another  morn 
Risen  on  mid-noon  ;'  " 


161 

and  the  sky  on  which  you  closed  your  eye  was  cloud- 
less. 

"  '  But — ah !  Him !  the  first  great  martyr  in  this 
great  cause  !  Him,  the  premature  victim  of  his  own 
self-devoting  heart !  Him,  the  head  of  our  councils, 
and  the  destined  leader  of  our  military  bands ;  whom 
nothing  brought  hither  but  the  unquenchable  fire  of 
his  own  spirit !  Him,  cut  off  by  Providence  in  the 
hour  of  overwhelming  anxiety  and  thick  gloom ;  fall- 
ing ere  he  saw  the  star  of  his  country  rise ;  pouring 
out  his  generous  blood  like  water  before  he  knew 
whether  it  would  fertilize  a  land  of  freedom  or  of 
bondage!  How  shall  I  struggle  with  the  emotions 
that  stifle  the  utterance  of  thy  name !  Our  poor  work 
may  perish,  but  thine  shall  endure  I  This  monument 
may  moulder  away ;  the  solid  ground  it  rests  upon 
may  sink  down  to  a  level  with  the  sea ;  but  thy  mem- 
ory shall  not  fail !  Wheresoever  among  men  a  heart 
shall  be  found  that  beats  to  the  transports  of  patriot- 
ism and  liberty,  its  aspirations  shall  be  to  claim  kin- 
dred with  thy  spirit!'" 

78.  When  it  should  be  Employed. — Apostrophe  is 
seldom  appropriate  except  in  impassioned  oratory  and 
poetry.  It  should  be  used  sparingly  and  with  dis- 
crimination. 


162  Jill£T« 


CHAPTER  XL 

SERMOCINATIO,  OB   DIALOGUE. 

79.  Definition,  and  Examples. — A  FANCIED  dialogue 
carried  on  in  the  midst  of  a  speech  or  other  produc- 
tion was  called  by  the  Greek  rhetoricians  simply  a  Di- 
alogue, and  by  the  Latins  Sermocinatio* 

We  have  no  single  English  word  to  describe  this 
common  figure  of  speech,  which  is  simply  an  imagined 
conversation.  It  may  be  carried  on  with  a  personified 
object,  with  a  person  absent  or  deceased,  or  with  some 
person  in  the  audience  who  is  fancied  to  converse  with 
the  speaker. 

Thus  Edward  Everett,  in  a  speech  upon  the  Bun- 
ker Hill  Monument,  fancies  an  objector  arguing  against 
it.  We  punctuate  the  extract  so  as  to  show  the  dia- 
logue clearly,  italicizing  what  the  objector  says : 

"But  I  am  met  with  the  objection,  What  good  will  the  monument 
dot  *  *  *  Does  a  railroad  or  a  canal  do  good?  *  Yes.' — And  how? 
— '  It  facilitates  intercourse,  opens  markets,  and  increases  the  wealth  of 

*  "  Ac  aunt  quidam,  qui  has  demnm  Tr/xxrwTroTrotaf  dicant,  in  qui- 
bus  et  corpora  et  verba  fingimus  ;  sermones  hominum  assimulatos  di- 
cere  dm/toyovf  malunt,  quod  Latinorum  quidam  dixerunt,  sermocina- 
tionem." 

"But  some — who  call  the  figure  prosopopcria  when  we  imagine 
both  the  person  and  the  speech — prefer  to  call  imagined  speeches  dia- 
logues, which  the  Latins  denominate  sermocinatio  "  (Quintilian,  lib. 


S  ER  MOC1NATIO.  163 

the  country.' — But  what  is  this  good  for? — ''Why,  individuals  pros- 
per and  get  rich.' — And  what  good  does  that  do  ?  [Here  the  dialogue 
ends.]  I  should  insult  this  audience  by  attempting  to  prove  that  a 
rich  man,  as  such,  is  neither  better  nor  happier  than  a  poor  one. 
[Here  it  is  resumed.]  'But  as  men  grow  rich,  they  live  better!1 — Is 
there  any  good  in  this  stopping  here  ? — *  But  these  improvements  in- 
crease the  population.' — And  what  good  does  that  do?" 

A  speech  is  very  much  enlivened  by  this  figure. 
The  conversation  must  be  natural,  and  well  repre- 
sented in  the  voice  and  manner  of  the  speaker.  It 
adds  much  to  the  effect  if  the  author  represents  the 
character  of  the  person  correctly  whom  he  thus  sum- 
mons up  before  him.  If  the  fancied  person  is  a  phi- 
losopher, he  must  talk  like  a  philosopher;  if  a  clown, 
like  a  clown.  The  audience  will  be  displeased  if 
any  unfairness  is  shown.  A  "  man  of  straw,"  or  per- 
sonage representing  baseless  objections,  must  not  be 
called  up. 

We  often  meet  this  figure  in  sermons,  especially  in 
the  form  of  supposing  some  auditor  to  object  to  the 
speaker,  or  to  converse  with  him.  The  following  is 
a  specimen,  slightly  abbreviated,  from  the  sermons  of 
John  "Wesley  :  "  I  ask,  What  can  make  a  wicked  man 
happy  ?  You  answer,  lHe  has  gained  the  whole  world.1 
— We  allow  it ;  and  what  does  this  imply  ? — lHe  has 
gained  all  thai  gratifies  the  senses."1 — True ;  but  can  eat- 
ing and  drinking  make^a  man  happy?  This  is  too 
coarse  food  for  an  immortal  spirit. — lffe  has  another  re- 
source— applause,  glory.  And  will  not  this  make  him 
happy?— It  will  not ;  for  he  can  not  be  applauded  by 
all  men ;  no  man  ever  was.  It  is  certain  some  will 
blame,  and  he  that  is  fond  of  applause  will  feel  more 


hil  BHXTOSIC. 

pain  from  the  censure  of  the  one,  than  pleasure  from 
the  praise  of  many." 

80.  Use  of  this  Figure. — To  excel  in  the  use  of  this 
figure,  requires  great  skill  and  mental  culture.  The 
principles  and  directions  given  in  the  chapter  on  Rep- 
resentative Writing  are  nearly  all  applicable  to  it,  and 
should  be  carefully  studied. 


VISION.  165 


CHAPTER  XII. 

VISION. 

81.  Definition,  and  Examples. — THE  representation 
of  what  is  past,  future,  or  absent,  or  of  a  fancied  occur- 
rence, as  though  it  was  present,  is  properly  called  Vis- 
ion. 

Under  the  influence  of  a  vivid  imagination  a  speak- 
er fancies  what  he  is  describing  as  now  passing  before 
him ;  and  if  he  can  succeed  in  producing  the  same  tem- 
porary illusion  in  his  hearers,  the  impression  made  by 
his  description  is  much  stronger  than  it  would  other- 
wise be. 

In  the  description  of  a  murder,  Daniel  Webster  em- 
ployed this  figure  in  a  passage  of  great  power.  After 
using  the  simple  narrative  style  in  the  beginning  of 
the  description,  as  though  the  event  had  long  since 
happened,  stating  that  the  "  deed  was  executed  with 
self-possession ;"  "  deep  sleep  had  fallen  on  the  vic- 
tim ;"  "  his  sleep  was  sweet,"  etc.,  he  immediately 
changes  his  narrative  into  the  present  tense,  as  though 
the  thing  was  happening  now,  in  the  presence  of  the 
judge  and  jury,  and  says  : 

"The  assassin  enters,  through  the  window  already  prepared,  into 
an  unoccupied  apartment.  With  noiseless  foot  he  paces  the  lonely 
hall,  half  lighted  by  the  moon ;  he  winds  up  the  ascent  of  the  stairs, 
and  reaches  the  door  of  the  chamber." 


100  RHETORIC. 

After  using  the  present  tense  for  a  few  minutes, 
he  returns  to  the  narrative  style,  and  says: 

"The  room  was  unconsciously  open  to  the  admission  of  light. 
The  face  of  the  innocent  sleeper  was  turned  from  the  murderer,"  etc. 

Then  he  resumes  the  vision : 

* c  The  fatal  blow  is  given  !  and  the  victim  passes,  without  a  strug- 
gle or  motion,  from  the  repose  of  sleep  to  the  repose  of  death !" 

How  much  more  impressive  is  this  than  the  cold 
narrative  style ! 

Frequent  transitions  from  the  past  to  the  present 
are  common  in  excited  narrative,  as  the  nature  of  the 
events  described  often  require  the  narrative  style,  and 
will  not  admit  of  being  represented  in  Vision. 

In  the  well-known  description  of  the  battle  of  Wa- 
terloo by  Byron,  this  figure  is  introduced  with  great 
effect.  We  have  room  only -for  a  few  lines  of  it.  It 
will  be  perceived  that  it  begins  in  the  historical  style, 
but  the  last  line  of  the  first  stanza  employs  the  figure 
of  Vision. 

"There  was  a  sound  of  revelry  by  night, 
And  Belgium's  capital  had  gathered  there 
Her  beauty  and  her  chivalry  ;  and  bright 
The  lamps  shone  over  fair  women  and  brave  men  ; 
A  thousand  hearts  beat  happily  ;  and  when 
Music  arose  with  its  voluptuous  swell, 
Soft  eyes  looked  love  to  eyes  that  spoke  again, 
And  all  went  merry  as  a  marriage  bell ; — 
But  hush  !  hark  !  a  deep  sound  strikes  like  a  rising  knell." 

The  next  stanza  describes  the  consternation  of  the 
company,  in  Vision,  as  though  present,  and  then  the 
past  returns  to  the  narrative  style,  and  does  not  re- 
sume the  present  tense  again  in  the  whole  description 


THE  HISTORICAL   PRESENT.  167 

till  the  very  last,  when,  in  describing  the  field  after  the 
battle,  he  abruptly  brings  it  before  us  as  though  we 
could  see  it,  saying : 

"  The  earth  »'s  covered  thick  with  other  clay, 

Which  her  own  chiy  shall  cover,  heaped  and  pent, 
Rider  and  horse — friend,  foe— in  one  red  burial  blent !" 

Such  a  production  shows  us  the  power  of  this  fig- 
ure of  speech. 

82.  The  Historical  Present. — So  common  is  it  in 
historical  writings,  that  the  use  of  the  present  tense 
of  verbs  for  the  past  tense  is  by  some  grammarians 
called  "the  historical  present."  Modern  writers  do 
not  use  it  so  frequently  as  the  ancient  writers.  It 
should  be  employed  sparingly,  and  only  in  excited 
narratives,  or  it  will  soon  lose  all  its  effect. 

To  show  its  frequency  and  power,  we  briefly  refer 
to  a  few  examples. 

Everett,  in  an  oration  on  the  Pilgrims,  has  a  very 
eloquent  passage,  beginning  with  these  words: 

"Methinks  I  see  it  now:  that  one  solitary  adventurous  vessel, 
the  Mayflower  of  a  forlorn  hope,  freighted  with  the  prospects  of  a  fu- 
ture state,  and  bound  across  the  unknown  sea." 

The  whole  passage  is  one  of  the  sublimest  descrip- 
tions in  the  English  language.  At  the  close  of  it 
the  student  will  observe  also  an  excellent  specimen 
of  the  apostrophe,  beginning : 

"Tell  me,  man  of  military  science!  in  how  many  months  were 
they  all  swept  off  by  the  thirty  savage  tribes  enumerated  within  the 
early  limits  of  New  England  ?  Tell  me,  politician !  how  long  did 
the  shadow  of  a  colony,  on  which  your  conventions  and  treaties  had 
not  smiled,  languish  on. the  distant  coast?" 


168  RHETORIC. 

The  use  of  the  past  tense  of  the  verbs  here — 
"were"  and  "did"— introduces  another  illusion,  as 
though  the  New  England  Pilgrims  had  not  succeed- 
ed, and  could  not  have  succeeded,  while  the  hearer, 
knowing  that  they  did  succeed,,  has  therefore  an  ex- 
alted conception  of  their  merit.  By  such  indirect 
means  can  a  skillful  master  of  thought  and  speech 
like  Everett  impress  other  minds. 

A  spirited  narrative,  when  Vision  is  employed, 
must  naturally  and  gracefully  change  from  the  past 
to  the  present  Sometimes  the  nature  of  the  events 
allows  it  to  be  abrupt,  thus : 

"Sophia  had  just  gone  to  bed,  and  I  had  thrown  off  half  my 
clothes,  when  a  cry  of  Fire!  Fire!  roused  us  from  our  calm  content; 
and  in  five  minutes  the  whole  ship  was  in  flames ! — Down  with  the 
boats!  where  is  Sophia?  Here.'  The  children?  Here. — A  rope  to 
the  side. — Give  her  to  me,  says  one. — I'll  take  her,  says  the  captain. — 
Throw  the  gunpowder  overboard.— It  can  not  be  got  at ;  it  is  in 
the  magazine  close  to  the  fire. — Water!  water!  Push  off!  push 
off!" 

A  similar  style  is  often  employed  by  Dickens  in 
his  liveliest  narrative.  Thus,  in  describing  the  dis- 
embarking of  himself  and  family  from  a  diligence,  or 
stage-coach,  in  Italy,  he  writes : 

"  The  door  is  opened.  Breathless  expectation.  The  lady  of  the 
family  gets  out.  Ah,  sweet  lady!  Beautiful  lady!  The  sister  of 
the  lady  of  the  family  gets  out.  Great  Heaven,  ma'amselle  is  charm- 
ing !  First  little  boy  gets  out.  Ah,  what  a  beautiful  little  boy  !  First 
little  girl  gets  out.  Oh,  but  this  is  an  enchanting  child !  Second 
little  girl  gets  out, "  etc. 

83.  Prophetic  Vision. — The  future  also  is  sometimes 
represented  as  present.  This  is  a  higher  flight  of  the 
imagination,  as  it  presupposes  that  the  speaker  has,  or 


EXAMPLES    OF  VISION.  IG'J 

professes  to  have,  power  to  foresee  what  is  yet  un- 
known to  all  but  himself.  Unless  he  has  succeeded 
in  obtaining  the  confidence  of  his  hearers,  his  efforts 
will  awaken  only  contempt ;  but  if  he  has  their  re- 
spect, and  has  control  of  their  feelings,  he  may,  by  the 
use  of  this  figure,  produce  a  strong  impression.  Thus 
Fisher  Ames,  depicting  the  dangers  of  a  threatened 
war  with  the  Indians,  exclaimed : 

"  I  can  fancy  that  I  listen  to  the  yells  of  savage  vengeance  and 
the  shrieks  of  torture ;  already  they  seem  to  sigh  in  the  western 
wind  ;  already  they  mingle  with  every  echo  from  the  mountains. " 

84.  Further  Examples  of  Vision. — Description  of  ab- 
sent objects  or  of  fancy  scenes  as  present,  is  not  un- 
common, and  often  enlivens  oratory.     As  a  specimen, 
take  the  following  from  a  discourse  by  Kev.  Dr.  Hop- 
kins :* 

"  See  the  eagle  as  he  leaves  his  perch.  He  flaps  his  broad  wing, 
and  moves  heavily.  Slowly  he  lifts  himself  above  the  horizon  till  the 
inspiration  of  a  freeer  air  quickens  him.  Now  there  is  new  light- 
ning in  his  eye,  and  new  strength  in  his  pinions.  See — how  he 
mounts !  Now  he  is  midway  in  the  heavens.  Higher  he  rises — still 
higher.  Now  his  broad  circles  are  narrowing  to  a  point — he  is  fading 
away  in  the  deep  blue.  Now  he  is  but  a  speck.  Now  he  is  gone." 

Often  thus  an  object  is  fancied  to  be  present,  and 
described  for  illustration.  Thus : 

"What  manner  of  plant  shall  this  be?  See — here  is  a  point  of 
green  just  visible.  Look  again.  It  has  become  a  violet,  with  its  eye 
on  the  sun, "etc. 

85.  Conclusion. — When  this  figure  is  employed  it 

*  A  Baccalaureate  Sermon,  delivered  at  Williamstown,  Mass., 
August  1,  1858,  by  Mark  Hopkins,  D.D.,  President  of  Williams  Col- 
lege. 

H 


1 70  RHETORIC. 

should  be  well  done.  The  descriptions  must  be  spir- 
ited and  accurate.  Unimportant  particulars  or  feat- 
ures must  not  be  mentioned.  The  description  must 
not  be  long,  or  it  will  become  wearisome,  and  the  fig- 
ure must  not  be  employed  often,  or  it  will  displease 
and  disgust  the  hearers. 

EXERCISES  IX  FIGURES. 

Point  out  and  name  the  various  figures  in  the  fol- 
lowing extracts : 

"  Her  voice  is  but  the  shadow  of  a  sound." 

"  Destruction  and  Death  say,  We  have  heard  the  fame  thereof 
with  our  ears." 

"The  astronomer  turns  his  glass  to  the  heavens,  and  fixes  three 
little  points  of  the  comet's  course,  and  so  finds  a  small  arc  of  its  curve. 
From  that  arc  he  can  predict  the  whole.  And  so  from  what  we  have 
done  yesterday,  the  day  before  yesterday,  and  to-day,  perhaps  our 
life-path  may  be  settled." 

"  We  are  riparian  proprietors,  dwelling  on  a  little  bit  of  the  shore, 
and  looking  out  on  a  small  portion  of  the  sea  which  bathes  all  conti- 
nents." 

"  The  gift  of  speech  is  to  all  men  common,  to  man  peculiar,  prov- 
ing that  man  is  of  one  blood,  between  whom  and  the  very  highest  of 
the  man  co-cerebral  mammalia  a  great  gulf  is  fixed  "(Allusion,  Meta- 
phor). 

"The  historical  critic  who  can  postpone  the  Biblo  to  Manetho 
surely  puts  himself  out  of  court  on  purely  literary  ground." 

"Our  conscience  is  the  Lydian  stone  by  which  we  must  try  the 
gold  of  truth." 

"  For  thy  sake,  Tobacco,  I 
Would  do  any  thing  but  die!" 

"  Each  cloud-capped  mountain  is  a  holy  altar, 
An  organ  breathes  in  every  grove  ; 
And  the  full  heart's  a  Psalter, 
Rich  in  deep  hymns  of  gratitude  and  love." 

"  Steam  has  married  the  continents." 


EXERCISES  IN  FIGURES.  171 

"Even  the  instrument  of  murder  is  altered — the  stiletto  has  sunk 
into  a  pen  1  Blood  is  vulgar !  Stab  not  the  body,  but  ruin  the  char- 
acter !" 

"  I  would  not  dissuade  a  student  from  metaphysical  inquiry ;  on 
the  contrary,  I  would  endeavor  to  promote  the  desire  of  entering  upon 
such  subjects ;  but  I  would  forewarn  him,  when  he  endeavors  to  look 
down  his  own  throat  with  a  candle  in  his  hand,  to  take  care  that  he 
does  not  set  his  head  on  fire." 

u  I  can  seem  to  see,  as  that  hard  and  dark  season  was  passing 
away,  a  diminished  procession  of  these  Pilgrims  following  another, 
dearly  loved  and  newly  dead,  to  that  bank  of  graves.  In  full  view 
the  Mayflower  is  riding  at  anchor.  The  tones  of  the  venerated  eld- 
er's voice  is  full  of  trust.  'This  spot,' he  says,  'is  now  dear  to  us, 
and  grows  dearer  daily,  from  the  precious  dust  committed  to  its  bo- 
som. ' " 

"Far  along, 

From  peak  to  peak,  the  rattling  crags  among, 
Leaps  the  live  thunder." 

"Though  the  blood  of  a  Wallace  had  failed  to  purchase  freedom 
for  his  country ;  though  the  short-lived  flame  which  burst  from  the 
enthusiasm  of  Cromwell  had  only  darkened  the  succeeding  night : 
though  the  vices  of  a  Stuart  had  produced,  like  the  pestilential  soil  of 
Egypt,  swarms  of  devouring  locusts,  gilded  with  titles  of  nobility,  the 
battles  of  Saratoga,  Monmouth,  and  Yorktown  proclaimed,  '  All  men 
are  born  equal.' " 

"You  fly  to  arms  ;  Indignation  flashes  from  each  eye  ;  Revenge 
gnashes  her  iron  teeth ;  hovering  Furies  darken  all  the  air." 

"The  leopard  can  not  change  his  spots,  but  we  are  to  transform 
ourselves,  body  and  soul,  to  save  our  property  and  lives  !"  (Allusion, 
Comparison,  Irony). 

"The  Church  of  God  advances  unhnrt  amid  rocks  and  dun- 
geons ;  she  has  entered  Italy,  and  appears  before  the  walls  of  the 
Eternal  City ;  idolatry  falls  prostrate  at  her  approach ;  her  ensign 
floats  in  triumph  over  the  capital ;  she  has  placed  upon  her  brow  the 
diadem  of  the  Caesars." 

"  We  charge  him  with  having  broken  his  coronation-oath,  and 
we  are  told  that  he  kept  his  marriage-vow  !  We  accuse  him  of  hav- 
ing given  up  his  people  to  the  merciless  inflictions  of  the  most  hot- 
headed and  hard-hearted  of  prelates,  and  the  defense  is,  that  he  took 
his  little  son  on  his  knee  and  kissed  him !" 

"Born  into  the  world  in  ignorance,  man  is  impelled  by  an  impe- 
rious instinct  to  know.  'Seek,'  whispers  a  voice  in  his  soul,  'and 


17J  RHETORIC. 

thou  shall  find.'  He  seeks,  he  observes,  he  inquires.  He  ascends 
the  mountain  of  knowledge — rugged,  precipitous ;  he  climbs  with  dif- 
ficulty from  crag  to.crag ;  on  the  topmost  peak,  in  the  clear  evening 
of  an  intellectual  life,  he  beholds  not  the  sterile  boundaries  of  a  uni- 
verse explored,  but  an  ocean  of  knowledge  yet  to  be  traversed,  a  Pa- 
cific of  truth  stretching  on  and  on  into  the  deeps  of  eternity." 

"  .Mind,  the  angel  of  the  universe,  ready  to  soar  out  of  the  mists 
of  earth,  prunes  her  wings  for  everlasting  flight.  The  instinct  which 
forbids  her  to  close  her  pinions  and  to  die  has  been  voracious  for 
time,  and  is  justly  trusted  for  eternity." 

••The  flower  that  is  out  of  reach  is  dedicated  to  God  !" 
"  Who  does  not  despise  a  silver-slippered  religion  ?" 
"  In  spurring  the  ardor  of  youth  to  studious  exertion,  it  is  com- 
mon to  repeat  the  Homeric  maxim,  *  To  supplant  every  one  else,  and 
stand  out  first.'     The  stimulating  effect  is  undoubted ;  it  is  strong 
rhetorical  brandy." 

"  Parting  day 

Dies  like  a  dolphin,  when  each  pang  imbues 
With  a  new  color  as  it  gasps  away, 
The  last  still  loveliest,  till— 'tis  gone — and  all  is  gray." 

BYRON. 

"No  other  language  [than  the  Greek]  has  lived  so  long  and  died  so 
hard,  pang  by  pang,  each  with  a  dolphin  color." — MRS.  BROWMN-;. 

"The  attempt  of  infidelity  to  do  away  with  the  great  doctrines 
of  religion,  is  the  prowess  of  a  dwarf  mounting  on  a  giant's  shoul- 
ders to  put  out  his  eye." 

"If  the  spirits  of  the  illustrious  dead  participate  in  the  cares  of 
those  dear  to  them  in  this  transitory  life,  oh,  ever  dear  and  venerated 
shade  of  my  father,  look  down  with  scrutiny  upon  your  son  !" 

"  A  man  of  capacity  undeveloped  is  an  organized  day-dream  with 
a  skin  on  it." 


SATL'ltX    OF    WIT.  173 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

WIT. 

86.  Definition.  — WIT  brings  together  thoughts  in 
unexpected  associations,  which  awaken  a  peculiar  feel- 
ing of  pleasure,  called  the  emotion  of  the  ludicrous. 

87.  The  Philosophy  of  Wit. — There  is  a  proper  or- 
der of  the  parts  composing  any  material  structure,  and 
there  are  certain  reasonable  and  correct  associations  of 
thoughts  and  feelings.     The  gratification  awakened  by 
perceiving  any  such  symmetry  is  philosophical  and 
perfect     A  well-formed  human  body,  an  exact  sphere 
or  square,  or  other  material  form,  an  accurately-adjust- 
ed 'system  of  machinery,  all  gratify  the  eye ;  and  so 
a  well-conducted  argumentation,  a  methodically-ar- 
ranged treatise,  or  poem,  or  oration,  or  even  a  nicely- 
rounded  period,  or  a  thought  in  any  way  properly- 
expressed,  pleases  the  mind.     The  reason  is  pleased 
with  order. 

It  might  be  supposed,  from  this  fact,  that  all  incon- 
gruous associations,  or  associations  impossible  in  fact, 
would  pain  the  mind.  So  they  do  all  minds  (if  any 
such  there  are)  incapable  of  appreciating  Wit. 

There  is  sometimes  in  disorder  a  strange,  fantastic 
regularity  which  pleases ;  sometimes  the  unexpected 
association  of  ideas  flatters  our  own  self-esteem  ;  some- 


174  RHETORIC. 

times  it  awakens  an  admiration  of  the  author  of  the 
wit;  sometimes  it  even  startlingly  suggests  a  new 
truth ;  and  in  some  or  all  of  these  ways  it  produces 
a  peculiar  pleasure  that  renders  "Wit  a  very  efficient 
weapon  in  the  hands  of  a  speaker  or  writer. 

Thus  the  picture  of  a  symmetrical  human  body 
gratifies  us ;  but  let  an  artist  give  to  the  picture  of  a 
human  face  asinine  ears,  or  a  dog's  nose,  or  any  other 
distortion,  and  so  far  from  the  disgust  that  philosophy 
might  have  anticipated,  a  strange  pleasure  is  excited. 
This  is  the  foundation  of  the  whole  system  of  carica- 
turing. Gestures,  manner,  sentiments,  thoughts,  can 
all  be  caricatured.  It  can  be  so  done  as  to  suggest 
other  thought,  and  become  thus  a  difficult  and  a  re- 
fined art.  If  it  is  done  improperly,  unjustly,  it  offends 
our  sense  of  propriety  and  right,  and  the  pleasure  that 
would  be  produced  by  the  wit  is  annihilated,  or  over- 
powered by  indignation. 

88.  Difficulty  ofillustr<it</,<j  Wit. — Witticisms  gener- 
ally owe  much  of  their  effect  to  the  occasion  which 
produces  them,  and  therefore,  like  volatile  vapors, 
when  we  attempt  to  analyze  them  they  evaporate. 
The  glow-worm  ceases  to  shine  when  subjected  to 
dissection.     Still  we  subjoin  a  few  to  illustrate  the 
theory. 

89.  Examples.  —  A  physician  was  summoned  in 
great  haste,  in  a  dark  and  stormy  night,  to  visit  a  pa- 
tient greatly  alarmed  at  a  sudden  accident.     On  arriv- 
ing, and  finding  the  man  more  frightened  than  hurt, 
he  turned  to  his  attendant  and  requested  him  to  run 
with   great  haste  and  get  a  certain  medicine.     "I 


PARONOMASIA.  175 

hope,"  stammered  the  patient,  "  that  there  is  no  imme- 
diate danger?"  "Indeed  there  is,"  said  the  doctor; 
"  unless  he  returns  as  soon  as  he  can,  you  will  be 
wholly  well  before  the  medicine  comes !"  The  incon- 
gruity consists  in  offering  as  a  reason  what  resembles 
a  reason  in  form,  but  if  really  so  considered  would  ex- 
cite only  contempt. 

"  Can  you  read  Greek,"  inquired  a  gentleman  of 
one  who  was  getting  decidedly  the  better  of  him  in  a 
theological  argument.  "I  do  not  know,"  he  replied, 
"I  have  never  tried." 

Sir  Boyle  Roche  said,  "No  man  can  be  in  two 
places  at  once  except  he  be  a  I 

90.  Paronomasia. — Wit  may  be  divided  into  vari- 
ous kinds.  The  most  common  species  of  Wit,  and 
the  lowest  in  merit,  is  Paronomasia,  or  the  Pun,  which 
consists  in  the  use  of  a  word  or  expression  which  will 
bear  two  meanings,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  suggest 
both  meanings  at  once,  when  the  incongruity  of  the 
two  ideas  produces  an  emotion  of  the  ludicrous. 

Thus  Curran  was  walking  with  a  friend  who  was 
punctilious  in  the  use  of  language.  Hearing  a  per- 
son say  "curosity  "  for  curiosity,  he  exclaimed,  "  How 
that  man  murders  the  language!"  "Not  quite  mur- 
ders" replied  Curran,  "  he  only  knocks  an  i  (eye)  out." 
The  two  meanings  of  tne  word  pronounced  ?',  and  the 
fanciful  connection  of  knocking  an  eye  out  with  mur- 
der, constituted  the  expression  a  kind  of  double  pun, 
and  made  the  reply  truly  witty. 

Puns  abound  in  all  languages.  Many  persons  ob- 
tain a  great  reputation  for  wits,  founded  only  on  the 


170 

frequent  use  of  them.  Humorous  poetry  overflows 
with  them.  The  writings  of  Hood,  Lamb,  Saxe, 
Holmes,  and  many  others  abound  in  them. 

Sometimes  they  seem  wrought  out  and  gathered 
together  so  as  to  present  the  form  of  a  labored  treat- 
ment of  a  subject.  The  following  specimen  of  a 
"  Catechism  on  Geology "  illustrates  this  practice : 

• '  What  is  geology  ?  The  science  of  breaking  stones.  Where  are 
its  professors  most  numerous  ?  In  State-prison.  What  is  a  geolo- 
gist's capital?  A  pocket  full  of  rocks.  What  kind  of  stone  has  been 
most  sought  for  ?  The  philosopher's  stone.  Has  it  ever  been  found  ? 
Yes  ;  frequently.  Where  ?  In  a  hat.  From  what  does  it  proceed  ? 
Quartz.  Where  does  granite  lie?  In  beds.  What  is  a  stratum? 
A  layer  of  any  thing.  Can  you  mention  any?  Yes  ;  a  hen.  Men- 
tion another.  A  ship;  she  lays  to  (too).  What  is  a  flint?  A  mi- 
ser's heart.  Can  you  break  it?  Yes.  How?  Open  his  chest. 
What  is  chalk?  The  milk  of  human  kindness." 

91.  Sparingly  used  in  sober  Productions.—  Puns  are 
sometimes  used  sparingly  in  dignified  writings. 

Thus,  in  a  labored  article  on  Christian  doctrine,  we 
meet  the  expression :  "To  the  average  apprehension, 
all  misty  schism  is  mysticism."  So  Landor,  speaking 
of  obstinate  men,  says :  "  Stiff  necks  are  diseased 
ones."  One  of  the  best  puns  of  this  character  in  the 
language  is  seen  in  a  letter  addressed  by  Franklin  in 
July,  1775,  to  a  member  of  the  British  Parliament 
who  opposed  the  Americans.  It  was  not  intended  to 
excite  laughter,  or  the  emotion  of  the  ludicrous,  but  in 
a  respectful,  and  yet  severe  way,  to  express  opinions, 
and  may  be  regarded  as  illustrating  sarcasm,  which  is 
a  species  of  wit.  It  was  as  follows : 

'•  MR.  STRAHAX, — You  are  a  member  of  Parliament,  and  one  of 
the  majority  which  has  doomed  my  country  to  destruction.  You  have 


EXAMPLES    OF  PARONOMASIA.  177 

begun  to  burn  our  towns  and  murder  our  people.  Look  upon  your 
hands !  They  are  stained  with  the  blood  of  your  relations !  You  and 
I  were  long  friends.  You  are  now  my  enemy — and  I  am 

"  Yours,  B.  FRANKLIX." 

The  double  meaning  of  "yours"  will  be  immedi- 
ately perceived. 

92.  A  Characteristic  Definition. — The  pun  has  been 
characteristically  defined  and  illustrated  as  follows : 

"A  pun's  a  word  that's  played  upon, 
And  has  a  double  sense ; 
But  when  I  say  a  double  sense, 
I  don't  mean  double  cents. 

"As  thus  :  A  bat  about  a  room 
Not  long  ago  I  knew 
Tojly ;  he  caught  &fy,  and  then 
Flew  up  the  chimney  flue." 

93.  Puns  suggesting  two  Languages.  —  Sometimes 
very  interesting  puns  are  made  by  the  combination  of 
two  languages.    "Words  are  used  in  the  form  of  quota- 
tions, or  as  original  expressions  from  the  other  lan- 
guage, which  either  sound  like  words  in  our  own  lan- 
guage that  convey,  in  the  sentence  used,  a  ludicrous 
meaning,  or  when  translated  present  a  pun.     Such  in- 
stances of  Paronomasia  are,  of  course,  few,  but  often 
to  those  who  understand  them  are  very  pleasing. 
Thus  Sheridan  suggested  to  an  ignorant  and  wealthy 
tobacconist  the  following  motto  to  be  blazoned  on 
his  carriage  :  Quid  rides!    In  English,  "Quid  "  (a  to- 
bacco quid)  "rides,"  in  Latin  it  means  "  Why  do  you 
laugh?"     So  when  a  noted  manufacturer  of  scales 
used  for  weighing  desired  to  obtain  a  suitable  motto 
to  inscribe  upon  them,  one  suggested  a  quotation  from 
the  description  of  the  leviathan  in  the  Book  of  Job — 

IT  2 


178  JIHKTORIV. 

"His  scales  are  his  pride!"  but  another  more  wittily 
suggested  the  following  Latin  motto,  "Mongtratviam;" 
literally,  "It  shows  the  way  "  (weigh). 

Sometimes  this  kind  of  wit  is  used  in  a  familiar 
style  to  enforce  thought,  as  in  the  following: 

••  Never  waste  arguments  on  people  who  do  not  know  logic  from 
logwood,  which  is  the  case  with  half  the  folks  who  like  disputation. 
The  best  reply  to  a  stolid  dogmatist  is  to  say,  '  Certainly,  no  doubt 
of  it,  it  is  as  clear  as  mud.'  Let  the  wrangler  have  his  way.  Leave 
him  to  himself,  and  he  will  leave  you." 

9-i.  Connected  with  Sarcasm. — Puns  are  frequently 
used  to  give  point  to  repartees,  apothegms,  and  epi- 
grams. Thus,  one  "Ward,  a  flippant  Parliamentary 
orator  who  used  to  write  out  and  commit  to  memory 
bombastic  speeches,  having  severely  criticised  Rog- 
ers's  poem  entitled  "  Italy,"  the  poet  took  his  revenge 
in  writing  these  few  lines,  which  were  soon  widely 
quoted : 

"  Ward  has  no  heart,  they  say;  but  I  deny  it: 
He  has  a  heart,  and  gets  hit  speeches  by  it .'" 

Such  puns  are  used  to  give  pungency  to  the  ex- 
pression of  thought  Thus :  "  England  is  a  brilliant 
performer,  but  bad  timist;"  in  which  musical  terms 
are  used  to  illustrate  the  author's  idea. of  England  in 
its  treatment  of  other  nations.  Such  a  pun  is  similar 
to  a  trope. 

95.  Puns  usually  Untranslatable. — A  pun,  from  the 
nature  of  the  case,  often  can  not  be  translated  into 
another  language.  Witticisms  are  often  untranslata- 
ble. This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  effort  of  Edouard 
Laboulaye,  a  French  author,  to  relate  the  saying  of 


/'A''M'/:A-/;.s,  i-:i'n;  HAMS.  179 

Franklin  to  his  associates  upon  signing  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence.  He  says,  as  literally  translated 
from  the  French,  "When  they  began  to  sign,  one  of 
those  who  were  about  to  affix  their  names  turned  to 
Franklin  and  said  :  'Well,  with  this  the  English  Gov- 
ernment can  have  us  all  hung  together!'  'Why,' 
said  Franklin,  'we  can  be  hung  separately.'  " 

There  is  neither  wit  nor  sense  in  the  above,  show- 
ing that  Laboulaye  did  not  understand  the  pun. 
What  Franklin  did  actually  say  was  characteristic- 
ally witty.  Hancock  of  Massachusetts  remarked: 
"  We  must  be  unanimous ;  there  must  be  no  pulling 
different  ways;  we  must  all  hang  together"  "Yes," 
replied  Franklin,  "  we  must  indeed  all  hang  together, 
or  most  assuredly  we  shall  all  hang  separately."  The 
two  meanings  of  hang  are  now  very  clear,  and  both 
the  wit  and  the  logic  of  the  philosopher's  remark  are 
very  evident. 

96.  Connected  with  Proverbs  and  Epigrams. — Many 
proverbs  owe  their  force  principally  to  this  kind  of 
wit.  The  following  familiar  versification  of  a  com- 
mon proverb  by  Dr.  Doddridge  illustrates  this  fact : 

"  *  Live  while  you  livej  the  epicure  would  say, 
And  seize  the  pleasures  of  the  present  day : 
*  Live  while  you  five,'  the  sacred  preacher  cries, 
And  give  to  God  each  moment  as  it  flies : 
Lord,  in  my  view  let  both  united  be  : 
I  live  to  pleasure  when  I  live  to  thee." 


180  RHETORIC. 


CHAPTER 
WIT —  Continued. 

97.  Wit  in  Thought.— WIT  of  the  highest  kind  is 
exhibited  without  any  play  upon  words,  but  by  pre- 
senting incongruous  and  yet  fantastically  arranged 
thoughts. 

98.  Travesty. — Travesty,  one  species  of  witty  pro- 
ductions, consists  in  representing  something  as  much 
more  valuable  than  it  really  is,  and  thus  ironically 
ridiculing  it 

"As  Berecynthia,  while  her  offspring  vie 
In  homage  to  the  mother  of  the  sky, 
Surveys  around  her  in  the  blest  abode 
A  hundred  sons,  and  every  son  a  god ; 
Not  with  less  glory  mighty  Dullness  crowned, 
Shall  take  through  Grub  Street  her  accustomed  round, 
And  her  Parnassus,  glancing  o'er  at  once, 
Behold  her  hundred  sons,  and  each  a  dunce." 

Travesty  is  generally  secured  by  debasing  compar- 
isons, though  they  may  not  be  formally  made. 

99.  Parody. — It  is  also  presented  sometimes  in  Par- 
ody, which  is  a  composition  similar  in  sound  to  anoth- 
er, and  yet  conveying  an  entirely  different  meaning. 
Parodies  are  not  necessarily  witty,  though  they  gen- 
erally are  ludicrous  on  account  of  the  associations  con- 
nected with  the  production  parodi 


PARODIES,  BURLESQUES.  181 

Thus  a  writer,  enumerating  u  the  miseries  of  life," 
describes  one  as  follows:  "  To  climb  into  a  berth  in 
a  river  steam-boat  .knowing  that,  sleepy  as  you  are, 
you  may  look  forward  to  listening  to  the  tramping  of 
that  crazy  race  on  deck  over  your  head,  who  look  at 
views,  within  an  inch  or  two  of  your  nose,  for  the  rest 
of  the  moonlight  night. 

'"He  thought,  as  he  hollowed  his  narrow  bed, 
And  punched  up  his  meagre  pillow, 
How  the  foe  and  the  stranger  should  tread  o'er  his  head, 
As  he  sped  on  his  way  o'er  the  billow.' " 

This  verse  is  a  parody  on  .a  stanza  hi  that  beauti- 
ful poem  written  on  the  burial  of  Sir  John  Moore : 

"We  thought,  as  we  hallowed  his  narrow  bed, 
And  smoothed  down  his  lowly  pillow, 
That  the  foe  and  the  stranger  would  tread  o'er  his  head, 
And  we,  far  away  o'er  the  billow." 

100.  Burlesque. — Burlesque  consists  in  using  high- 
sounding  epithets  and  an  apparently  dignified  style 
to  describe  unworthy  objects.  Burlesque  translations 
of  the  Iliad  of  Homer,  and  other  celebrated  composi- 
tions, have  been  written  often  with  a  purpose  to  ridi- 
cule some  men  or  measures. 

Burke,  speaking  of  the  revolutionists  of  his  time, 
who  made  a  great  noise  and  effected  but  little,  said : 

"Because  half  a  dozen  grasshoppers  under  a  fern  make  the  field 
ring  with  their  importunate  chink,  while  thousands  of  great  cattle  re- 
pose in  the  shade  and  are  silent,  pray  do  not  suppose  that  those  who 
make  the  noise  are  the  only  inhabitants  of  the  field ;  or  that,  after 
nil,  they  are  other  than  the  little  meagre,  hopping,  though  loud  and 
troublesome  insects  of  the  hour." 

The  writings  of  Pope  present  many  instances  of  the 
burlesque,  as  the  following  : 


182  Rlli 

''Then  flashed  the  lurid  lightning  from  her  eyes, 
And  screams  of  horror  rend  the  affrighted  skies  ; 
Not  louder  shrieks  to  pitying  Heaven  are  cast 
When  husbands  and  when  lapdogs  breathe  their  last." 

101.  Resources  of  Wit. — Wit  uses  irony,  caricature, 
hyperbole,  and  extravagance  of  every  kind. 

As  a  specimen  of  extravagance,  take  the  following 
description  of  a  Yankee  written  by  an  American  poet : 

"He  would  kiss  a  queen  till  he'd  raise  a  blister, 
With  his  arm  round  her  neck  and  his  old  felt  hat  on; 
Salute  a  king  with  the  title  of  mister, 
And  ask  him  the  price  of  the  throne  he  sat  on." 

The  wit  of  the  following  is  very  evident :  Voltaire 
once  praised  a  celebrated  author  to  a  third  person. 
"  It  is  very  strange,"  was  the  reply,  "  that  you  think 
so  well  of  him,  for  he  says  you  are  a  charlatan." 
"  Ah !"  replied  Voltaire ;  "  perhaps  we  are  both  mis- 
taken !" 

102.  Humor. — Humor  is  a  mild  and  quiet  kind 
of  wit,  associated  with  good- temper,  and  designed  to 
convey  thought  in  an  agreeable  way.     A  humorous 
writer  often  enlivens  his  descriptions  with  a  joke,  or 
a  strange  association  of  ideas.     Sometimes  the  whole 
subject  is  presented  in  a  ludicrous  manner.     Its  na- 
ture can  only  be  appreciated  by  reading  the  produc- 
tions of  such  writers  as  Addison,  Sydney  Smith,  Lamb, 
Hood,  Irving  and  Holmes. 

103.  Sarcasm. — Sarcasm  is  wit  that  also  expresses 
contempt  and  scorn. 

104.  Satires.— Satires  are  productions  in  which  fol- 
lies and  vices  are  ridiculed,  sometimes  humorously 
and  with  good-nature,  sometimes  severely  and  indig- 


WIT  THAT  DOES  NUT   TE.\D   TO  LAUGHTER.    183 

nantly,  often  employing  the  bitterest  sarcasm.  Since 
the  days  of  Horace,  Juvenal,  and  Persius,  this  has 
been  a  common  form  of  writing.  Satires  may  be 
written  in  poetry  or  prose,  and  satirical  passages  are 
met  in  orations,  sermons,  essays,  reviews,  and  even 
historical  writings. 

105.  Wit  that  does  not  tend  to  awaken  Laughter. — 
Wit  is  often  properly  used  to  increase  an  interest  in 
the  subject  treated,  and  to  ridicule  error,  by  showing 
its  absurd  consequences,  and  by  ludicrous  analogies 
and  comparisons,  and  there  is  much  wit  that  does  not 
tend  to  produce  laughter.  The  following  illustrates 
this  kind  of  wit. 

The  eloquent  preacher  Summerfield,  in  an  address, 
said  : 

"A  boasting  infidel  once  wrote,  in  closing  an  assault  upon  the 
Bible :  '  I  have  gone  through  the  Bible  as  a  man  would  go  through 
the  woods  felling  trees;  here  they  lie,  and  the  priests,  if  they  can, 
may  replant  them.  They  may  stick  them  in  the  ground,  but  they 
will  never  grow.'  '  Sir '  [said  Summerfield],  '  the  priests  are  not  such 
fools  as  to  suppose  that  sticking  the  dissevered  limbs  of  a  tree  into 
the  ground  will  make  them  grow,  although  we  have  inspired  author- 
ity for  saying,  There  is  hope  of  a  tree,  even  if  it  be  cut  down,  that  it 
will  sprout  again,  and  that  the  tender  branches  thereof  shall  not 
cease.  But,  sir,  did  he  cut  down  all  the  trees  ?  No,  sir.  There  was 
one  tree  that  he  never  touched ;  and  I  would  to  God  that  he  had 
touched  it,  for  it  would  have  given  a  new  and  nobler  impulse  to  all 
his  efforts.  I  mean  the  Tree  of  Life,  which  is  in  the  midst  of  the 
garden.' " 

None  can  fail  to  feel  the  power  of  the  wit  in  the 
above,  but  few  would  feel  moved  to  laughter  by  it. 
A  grateful  and  happy  surprise  is  the  emotion  awak- 
ened by  such  wit. 

In  the  use  of  this  kind  of  wit  Lord  Bacon  excelled. 


184  RHETORIC. 

Macaulay  says  of  him  :*  "  In  wit,  if  by  wit  lie  meant 
the  power  of  perceiving  analogies  between  things 
which  appear  to  have  nothing  in  common,  he  never 
had  an  equal — not  even  Cowley — not  even  the  author 
of  Hudibras."  And  yet,  we  may  add,  perhaps  not  a 
single  expression  that  would  excite  laughter  can  be 
found  in  all  his  writings,  except  some  witticisms  quot- 
ed from  the  ancients,  and  one  very  poor  pun  quoted 
from  Erasmus.t 

106.  Absence  of  Witticisms  in  some,  and  its  Value. — 
No  witticisms  are  found  in  the  orations  of  Daniel 
Webster  or  in  those  of  Edward  Everett,  though  oc- 
casionally a  very  subdued  humor  and  sarcasm  ap- 
pears. This  is  true  of  many  eminent  authors. 

The  frequent  use  of  wit  rather  weakens  the  repu- 
tation of  a  writer  or  speaker  for  sobriety  of  character 
and  sound  judgment;  and  yet,  where  it  is  entirely 
lacking,  it  is  felt  that  a  great  element  of  power  is 
wanting.  Professor  Goldwin  Smith  has  well  said: 
'•  Mirth  is  a  real  part  of  our  moral  nature,  significant 
as  well  as  the  rest  The  great  ministers  of  pure  and 
genial  mirth,  Cervantes,  Shakspeare,  Moliere,  have  ful- 
filled a  moral  mission  of  mercy  and  justice,  as  well  as 
of  pleasure  to  mankind,  and  have  their  place  of  honor 
in  history  with  the  other  great  benefactors  of  the  race. 
And,  on  the  other  hand,  the  attempts  to  expel  mirth 

*  Macanlay's  Misccllaneons  Writings,  article  Bacon,  p.  285. 

t  "Then  did  Erasmus  take  occasion  to  make  the  scoffing  echo: 
Decem  annos  consumpsi  in  legendo  Cicerone,  and  the  echo  answered 
'  One."1  This  may  be  imitated  in  English  thus  :  "  I  have  spent  ten 
years  in  reading  Cicero's  writings — a  ponderous  mass,  and  the  echo 
answered  lAss.' " 


/'AM' y/'  .1 /.    U8M    "/•'  R1DKJULE.  185 

from  human  life  and  character  made  by  certain  aus- 
tere sects  have  resulted  not  only  in  moroseness,  but 
in  actual  depravity." 

107.  Is  Ridicule  the  Test  of  Truth?  —  It  has  been 
claimed  that  "Ridicule  is  the  test  of  truth."   The  only 
proper  signification  of  this  assertion  would  be  that 
whatever  is  true  will  not  excite  mirthful  emotion,  and 
therefore  can  not  be  made  to  appear  ridiculous.     If 
truth  means  simply  fact,  this  can  not  be  maintained, 
for  some  facts  are  themselves  ludicrous.    A  pompous 
man,  in  the  midst  of  a  great  display,  meets  with  a  sud- 
den accident,  and  the  laughter  of  spectators  is  excited. 
The*  simple  narrative  of  the  fact  is  witty.     But  if  by 
truth  is  meant  philosophical  or  moral  truth,  it  may  be 
claimed  that  it  is  not  ridiculous,  and  whatever  appears 
so  can  not  be  true.     But  no  truth  is  incapable  of  per- 
version.    The  Bible  may  be  slightly  caricatured  and 
made  to  appear  ridiculous.     Eespect  for  parents,  or 
any  other  good  characteristic,  may  be  presented  in  a 
ridiculous  light.     Ridicule  is  not  therefore  practically 
a  test  of  truth. 

Ridicule,  like  logic  or  rhetoric,  may  be  perverted 
to  advocate  error. 

108.  Directions  upon  its  Employment. — In  the  neces- 
sary division  of  labor  that  prevails  in  civilized  socie- 
ty, there  will  be  many  who,  from  constitution  or  choice, 
will  cultivate  principally  wit.     Such  persons  should 
avoid  its  improper  use.     They  should  cherish  a  ten- 
der regard  for  the  feelings  of  others,  and  satirize  only 
falsehood  and  folly,  and  should  avoid  all  coarseness 
and  irreverence,  to  which  professed  wits  are  liable. 


IM;  Jfllf 

There  are  many  who  have  no  ambition  to  be  regarded 
as  wits,  who  nevertheless  wish  to  use  properly  and 
with  discrimination  so  effective  a  weapon.  They  re- 
member that  the  greatest  philosophers  have  not  been 
destitute  of  it. 

Let  such  persons  read  the  best  productions,  study 
the  best  specimens,  and  acquire  as  extensive  a  stock 
of  knowledge  as  possible,  and  the  material  will  not  be 
wanting  when  occasion  calls  for  its  use. 


PART    III, 

COMPOSITION  AND   STYLE. 


<;i:yERAL  GUAM  MA  it.  139 


CHAPTER  I. 

COMBINATIONS  OF  WORDS. 

1.  The  Grouping  of  Words. — WORDS,  to  affect  their 
purpose,  must  be  grouped  together  according  to  the 
laws  of  language.   As  the  twenty-six  letters  of  the  al- 
phabet are  capable  of  forming  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  distinct  words,  so  the  thirty  or  forty  thousand  words 
of  our  language  may  be  arranged  into  millions  of  differ- 
ent combinations,  each  conveying  a  different  thought. 
The  flexibility  and  resources  of  the  language  of  a  cul- 
tivated people  are  incomprehensible. 

2.  Natural  Limit  to  the  Vocabulary. — There  is  a  limit 
beyond  which  the  multiplication  of  words  would  cease 
to  contribute  to  the  efficiency  of  a  language.     There 
is  a  sense  in  which  thoughts  are  compound,  and  re- 
quire to  be  expressed  by  compound  words.      The 
common  classifications  of  words  represent  orders  and 
classes  of  objects,  qualities,  motions,  processes,  causes 
and  effects  in  the  outward  world,  and  thoughts,  feel- 
ings, experiences  in   the  soul  of  man.     There  must 
therefore  be  classes  of  words,  to  correspond  with  the 
actual  classes  of  objects  and  actions. 

3.  General  Grammar. — There  is  a  kind  of  general 
grammar  common  to  all  languages.     Every  human 
being  of  fair  mental  ability  is  able  to  learn  any  Ian- 


190  RUE  I  URIC. 

guage,  and  will  be  aided  to  do  so  by  a  familiarity  with 
his  mother-tongue.  All  languages  are  transcripts  of 
the  human  mind.  They  resemble  each  other  like 
photographs  of  the  same  object  taken  in  different  de- 
grees of  light,  and  from  different  points  of  view. 

4.  Comparative  Importance  of  Words.  —  Whether 
nouns  or  verbs  are  the  more  important,  it  may  be  im- 
possible to  decide.     The  primitive  language  probably 
had  a  few  of  both,  or  it  may  be  that  the  first  few  ut- 
terances of  man  combined  the  nature  of  both  nouns 
and  verbs. 

It  is  possible  that  single  utterances,  made  by  one  im- 
pulse of  the  voice,  expressed  each  a  proposition,  such 
as,  The  sun  shines,  The  wind  blows,  The  apple  is  ripe. 
If  it  was  so,  a  gradual  improvement  in  discrimination 
must  have  led  to  the  confining  of  those  terms,  sooner 
or  later,  to  a  representation  either  of  the  objects,  or 
of  the  assertions  made,  and  other  terms  were  added 
to  express  the  whole  thought.  Thus  the  primitive 
words  being  few,  may  have  been  broken  up,  so  to 
speak,  into  many,  or  have  gained  in  distinctness  what 
they  lost  in  comprehensiveness.  This  process  is  now 
common,  especially  when  a  rude  people  are  rapidly 
civilized,  and  endeavor  to  express  their  new  thoughts 
by  modifying  their  old  language. 

5.  Change  in  the  Comprehension  of  Words. — One  of 
the  most  common  changes  now  going  on  in  language 
is  seen  in  the  restriction  of  words  to  narrower  mean 
ings.     Thus  meat  once  meant  all  kinds  of  food ;  soldier 
once  meant  any  person  hired  (from  soldatus)  ;  now  it 
means  one  employed,  or  even  volunteering,  for  mili- 


COMPOUND   WORDS.  191 

tary  service;  minister  once  meant  any  servant,  now 
it  is,  at  least  in  popular  language,  confined  to  that 
class  of  men  who  consent  to  serve  their  fellow-men 
as  preachers  of  the  Gospel,  and  have  made  their  serv- 
ice an  honorable  profession,  or  to  describe  ambassa- 
dors sent  to  represent  a  nation  before  a  foreign  Gov- 
ernment The  exactly  opposite  process  of  extending 
the  comprehension  of  words,  so  as  to  embrace  more 
objects,  does  also  sometimes  take  place.  Thus  flesh 
once  signified  only  pork;  bread  is  sometimes  used  to 
mean  all  kinds  of  food,  as  in  the  petition,  "Give  us 
our  daily  bread.11 

6.  Compound  Words. — Words  are  often  compound- 
ed, or  combined,  to  express  compound  objects,  as 
thoughts  suggested  by  two  or  more  causes.  Thus 
steam  and  boat  are  combined  to  produce  steam-boat 
A  compound  word  ought  to  denote  one  idea,  differ- 
ent from  that  which  would  be  expressed  by  the  parts 
taken  separately. 

The  English  language  is  comparatively  poor  in 
native  compound  words,  and  this  is  undoubtedly  one 
of  its  most  serious  defects.  Many  words  that  are  real- 
ly compound  in  other  languages  are  transferred  to  our 
language  as  simple  words,  and  thus  the  people  are 
compelled  to  learn  many  more  independent  words 
than  those  who  speak  languages  which  have  fewer 
primitive  and  more  compound  terms. 

Such  words  as  thunder-storm,  thunder-cloud,  witch- 
craft, earthquake,  axe-handle,  snow-plow,  engine-tender, 
color-bearer,  seven-shooter,  apple-parer,  need  no  explana- 
tion. Is  it  not  a  pity  that  we  have  sacrificed  such 


192  RHETORIC. 

words  as  earth-tylth  (earth-tillage),  hand-cloth,  and  oth- 
ers, that  made  the  mother  Anglo-Saxon  so  much  more 
vigorous  than  the  daughter  English?  It  may  yet 
become  fashionable  to  reinstate  many  old  compound 
words  now  forgotten. 


ANALYSIS   OF  PROPOSITIONS.  193 


CHAPTER  H. 

PROPOSITIONS. 

7.  Definition,  and  Examples.  —  ANY_collection  of 
words  making  complete  sense  is  :i   Proposition.     A 
Proposition  in  the  English  language  may  consist  of 
only  one  or  two  words,  and  it  may  cover  several 
pages.     Instances : 

"Grass  grows." 

"  Every  thing  about  him,  his  coat,  his  wig,  his  figure,  his  face, 
his  scrofula,  his  St.  Vitus's  dance,  his  rolling  walk,  his  blinking  eye, 
the  outward  signs  which  too  clearly  marked  his  approbation  of  his 
dinner,  his  insatiable  appetite  for  fish-sauce  and  veal-pie  with  plums, 
his  inextinguishable  thirst  for  tea,  his  trick  of  touching  the  posts  as  he 
walked,  his  mysterious  practice  of  treasuring  up  scraps  of  orange-peel, 
his  morning  slumbers,  his  midnight  disputations,  his  contortions,  his 
mutterings,  his  gruntings,  his  vigorous,  acute,  and  ready  eloquence, 
his  sarcastic  wit,  his  vehemence,  his  insolence,  his  fits  of  tempestu- 
ous rage,  his  queer  inmates  (old  Mr.  Levett  and  blind  Mrs.  Wil- 
liams, the  cat  Hodge,  and  the  negro  Frank),  all  are  as  familiar  to  us 
as  the  objects  by  which  we  have  been  surrounded  from  childhood." 

8.  The  Elements  of  a  Proposition.— ^o  every  Propo- 
sition there  are  three  parts :  the  subject  treated  of; 
the  assertive  word  or  words;  and  the  copula  which 
connects  the  two  together.     Sometimes  the  copula 
has  no  separate  word,  but  it  is  expressed  by  a  pecul- 
iar form  of  the  verb,  or  assertive  word,  and  in  some 
languages  a  single  word  often  embraces  all  the  three 

I 


194  RHETORIC. 

elements  of  the  Proposition.  Thus,  I  am  cold,  is  a 
proposition  having  the  three  separate  parts.  Rain 
f.tlls  is  a  proposition  in  which  rain  is  the  subject, 
falft  is  the  assertive  word  in  its  true  form,  and  the  s 
added  serves  as  a  copula  to  connect  the  two. 

9.  The  Order  of  the  Terms  of  a  Proj  -  The  nat- 
ural order  of  the  words  in  a  proposition  in  our  lan- 
guage is,  first,  the  subject ;  second,  the  predicate,  in- 
cluding the  copula ;  or  second,  the  copula ;  and  third, 
the  predicate.     Man  strives,  is  a  proposition  in  which 
man  is  the  subject,  strives  is  the  predicate  and  copula 
together.     The  word  striving  would  express  the  predi- 
cate alone,  and  is  would  form  the  copula,  thus :  Man 
is  str<>'< 

There  lives  a  man,  is  another  form  of  the  proposi- 
tion A  man  lives. 

In  some  instances  the  natural  order  of  words  in  a 
proposition  may  be  changed.  "  He  loves  my  friend," 
"  Loves  he  my  friend,"  "  My  friend  he  loves,"  all  may 
express  the  same  thought. 

10.  Variety  of  Construction. — There  must  be  one 
best  order  of  words  for  every  one  shade  of  thought 
There  is  a  slight  difference  between  the  meaning  of 
"  a  broad  and  deep  sea,"  and  "  a  sea  deep  and  broad." 
In  the  former  we  have  to  retain  in  the  mind  the  ideas 
of  the  qualities  "  broad  "  and  "  deep  "  until  we  hear 
the  word  "  sea,"  and  then  we  connect  them.     In  the 
latter,  "  sea"  gives  us  at  once  a  conception  of  a  thing, 
and  as  soon  as  we  hear  the  word  "  deep  "  we  join  it 
to  the  conception  "  sea,"  and  then  add  the  further 
qualification  '^cop."     When  several  adjectives  are 


VARIETY   OF   CONSTRUCTION.  195 

used  belonging  to  one  noun,  it  is  frequently  best  to 
employ  them  after  the  noun.  It  is  well  so  to  use 
words  that  each  succeeding  clause,  and,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, each  succeeding  word,  may  give  an  additional 
thought  to  the  hearer. 

11.  A  Variety  to  be  Studied. — It  is  idle^  to  maintain 
that  any  one  of  the  forms  of  sentences  that  express 
various  shades  of  meaning  is  the  best,  or  most  to  be 
cultivated.  In  some  languages,  in  the  use  of  a  transi- 
tive verb  with  both  subject  and  object,  it  is  customary 
to  present  the  object  first,  in  others  the  subject  first, 
and  sometimes  the  verb  is  presented  first.  We  can 
in  our  own  language  say,  Nature  man  admires;  but 
generally,  to  avoid  ambiguity,  we  are  compelled  to 
preserve  what  from  habit  seems  to  us  to  be  the  nat- 
ural order,  thus:  Man  admires  nature.  But  when  any 
other  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  a  proposition  can 
be  made  without  rendering  the  proposition  ambig- 
uous, or  meaningless,  often  vivacity  and  energy  may 
be  thus  secured.  Thus :  "  Loud  arose  the  shout  above 
the  hum  of  business,  and  immediately  hushed  was 
every  breath,"  is  much  more  expressive  than  "  The 
loud  shout  arose  above  the  hum  of  business,  and 
every  breath  was  hushed  immediately."  The  supe- 
rior energy  of  the  former  expression  arises  partly 
from  its  novelty  or  unusual  form,  and  partly  from  the 
interest  excited  at  once  by  the  word  "  loud."  Other 
instances  are  the  following :  "  Great  is  Diana  of  the 
Ephesians ;"  "  Turn  we  now  to  the  holier  impulses 
of  our  being."  This  last  proposition  may  be  express- 
ed variously :  "  Now  we  turn  to  the  holier  impulses 


196  RHETORIC. 

of  our  being ;"  "  Now  turn  we  to  the  holier  impulses 
of  our  being ;"  "  To  the  holier  impulses  of  our  being 
now  we  turn." 

It  is  evident  that  even  in  the  English  language 
simple  propositions  will  admit  of  a  great  variety  in 
the  arrangement  of  their  words. 

12.  Place  of  Adjectives,  Adverbs,  and  other  Words. — 
The  natural  order  in  our  language  is  for  the  adjective 
to  precede  the  noun  the  signification  of  which  it  lim- 
its ;  but,  for  variety  and  vivacity,  this  order  may  oft- 
en be  varied.     "  The  reports  of  the  guns,  loud,  sharp, 
constant,  produced  a  startling  effect." 

Adverbs  should  generally  be  placed  immediately 
before  or  after  the  words  which  they  limit,  but  may 
sometimes  be  placed  at  a  great  distance  from  them, 
and  thus  become  more  emphatic.  Thus  we  may  say, 
"  Slowly  he  trudged  along,  singing,  amid  all  his  toil 
and  care,  merrily." 

In  the  use  of  qualifying  words,  clauses,  and  phrases, 
an  author  may  show  great  skill,  both  in  securing  a 
variety  of  expressions,  and  in  adapting  his  style  to 
the  character  of  the  thought  which  he  intends  to  ex- 
press. 

It  becomes  a  disagreeable  mannerism  when  an  au- 
thor deviates  constantly,  in  one  particular  way,  from 
the  ordinary  method  of  arranging  words. 

13.  A  Variety  of  Construction  to  be  Sought. — It  is  an 
excellent  practical  exercise  to  select  some  expressive 
sentence  from  a  good  author,  and  ascertain,  by  actual 
trial,  in  how  many  different  ways  the  same  words  may 
be  arranged  without  materially  changing  the  mean- 


VARIETY   OF   CONSTRUCTION.  197 

ing.  Then  let  the  words  and  expressions  be  changed, 
still  preserving  the  sense.  Then  let  all  the  forms  be 
scrutinized,  and  the  different  degrees  of  force  and 
beauty  be  noticed.  In  this  way  a  writer  will  guard 
against  monotony  or  uniformity  of  method  in  con- 
structing sentences,  and  cultivate  a  variety  of  expres- 
sions. 

Take,  for  instance,  the  following  simple  statement 
of  Webster: 

"When  public  bodies  are  to  be  addressed  on  momentous  occa- 
sions, when  great  interests  are  at  stake,  and  strong  passions  excited, 
nothing  is  valuable  in  speech  farther  than  it  is  connected  with  high 
intellectual  and  moral  endowments." 

This  may  be  rendered : 

"When  great  interests  are  at  stake,  and  strong  passions  are  ex- 
cited, and  public  bodies  are  to  be  addressed,  nothing  in  speech  is 
farther  valuable  than  it  is  connected  with  high  moral  and  intellectual 
endowments." 

Or  it  might  be : 

"When  strong  passions  are  excited,  and  great  interests  are  at 
stake,  and  public  bodies  are  to  be  addressed  on  momentous  occasions, 
nothing  in  speech,  farther  than  it  is  connected  with  high  intellectual 
and  moral  endowments,  is  valuable." 

Many  other  forms  could  be  constructed,  but  none 
fully  equal  to  the  original.  In  that  the  attention  is 
first  called  to  a  demand  for  good  speaking,  which  is 
evidently  the  leading  idea ;  then  we  have  an  idea  of 
"momentous  occasions,"  generally  expressed,  confirm- 
ed by  "  great  interests  are  at  stake ;"  still  farther,  by 
"  strong  passions  are  excited ;"  then  we  have  a  very 
general  conclusion,  "  nothing  is  valuable  in  speech," 
immediately  limited  by  "  farther  than  it  is  connected 
with  high  intellectual  and  moral  endowments." 


198  ZUETOXIC. 

Some  sentences  are  so  neatly  expressed  that  the 
change  of  a  single  word  would  injure  them.  Take 
the  following  from  Edward  Everett  as  an  instance: 

"On  one  occasion  a  person  introduced  himself  in  the  following 
manner :  *  You  see  before  you  a  father  who  has  educated  his  son 
agreeably  to  the  principles  in  your  Emilc.'  Rousseau's  reply  was, 
'  So  much  the  worse  for  you  and  your  son !'  " 

14.  Practical  Directions. — Elementary  treatises  on 
grammar  may  be  studied  with  great  profit  to  ascer- 
tain the  best  directions  for  the  location  of  adverbs, 
adjectives,  the  infinitive  mode,  and  other  elements  of 
speech,  but  a  careful  writer  will  need  only  to  observe 
that  perspicuity  and  force  are  primarily  to  be  secured, 
and  that  a  variety  in  the  construction  of  sentences 
should  be  sought. 

Also  guard  against  a  useless  expenditure  of  breath 
— a  superabundance  of  vocables.  Scattering  shot  do 
little  execution. 


SIMPLE  AND   COMPOUND   SENTENCES.       199 


CHAPTER  III. 

SENTENCES. 

15.  Definition,  and  Examples. — SENTENCES  may  be 
'simple  or  compound.  A  simple  sentence  has  but  one 
subject,  and  one  finite  verb.  Instances : 

"Man  is  mortal." 

"To  an  American  visiting  Europe,  the  long  voyage  he  has  to 
make  is  an  excellent  preparative." 

A  compound  sentence  has  more  than  one  finite 
verb,  and  is  capable  of  being  divided  into  two  or  more 
propositions. 

Sentences  differ  much  in  length.  "  Beauty  is  vain," 
is  a  short  sentence. 

The  following  is  longer : 

**  Our  immense  extent  of  fertile  territory  opening  an  inexhausti- 
ble field  for  successful  enterprise,  thus  assuring  to  industry  a  certain 
reward  for  its  labors,  and  preserving  the  lands  for  centuries  to  come 
from  the  manifold  evils  of  an  overcrowded,  and  consequently  de- 
graded population  ;  our  magnificent  system  of  federated  republics, 
carrying  out  and  applying  the  principles  of  representative  democracy 
to  an  extent  never  hoped  or  imagined  in  the  boldest  theories  of  the 
old  speculative  republican  philosophers,  the  Harringtons,  Sydneys, 
and  Lockes  of  former  times ;  the  reaction  of  over-political  system 
upon  our  social  and  domestic  concerns,  bringing  the  influence  of 
popular  feeling  and  public  opinion  to  bear  upon  all  the  affairs  of 
life  in  a  degree  hitherto  wholly  unprecedented ;  the  unconstrained 
range  of  freedom  of  opinion,  of  speech,  and  of  the  press,  and  the  ha- 
bitual and  daring  exercise  of  that  liberty  upon  the  highest  subjects ; 
the  absence  of  all  serious  inequality  of  fortune  and  rank  in  the  con- 


200  RHETORIC. 

dition  of  our  citizens ;  our  divisions  into  innumerable  religious  sects, 
and  the  consequent  co-existence,  never  before  regarded  as  possible,  of 
intense  religious  zeal  with  a  degree  of  toleration  in  feeling  and  perfect 
equality  of  rights  ;  our  intimate  connection  with  that  elder  world  be- 
yond the  Atlantic,  communicating  to  us,  through  the  press  and  emi- 
gration, much  of  good  and  much  of  evil  not  our  own,  high  science,  re- 
fined art,  and  the  best  knowledge  of  old  experience,  as  well  as  preju- 
dices and  luxuries,  vices  and  crimes,  such  as  could  not  have  been  ex- 
pected to  spring  up  in  our  soil  for  ages ;  all  these,  combined  with  nu- 
merous other  peculiarities  in  the  institutions,  and  in  the  moral,  civil, 
and  social  condition  of  the  American  people,  have  given  to  our  soci- 
ety, through  all  its  relations,  a  character  excluMvcly  its  own." 

16.  Variety  of  Taste  on  this  Subject. — Some  vigorous' 
and  clear  writers  confine  themselves  almost  entirely 
to  short  sentences.  Writings  of  a  didactic  character 
sometimes  consist  of  a  succession  of  independent  prop- 
ositions naturally  expressed  in  short  sentences.  Some 
writers  present  us  with  an  almost  unbroken  succession 
of  long  sentences.  Either  practice  as  a  fixed  habit  is 
reprehensible.  A  continued  succession  of  either  short 
or  long  sentences  wearies  the  hearer  or  reader. 

Short  sentences  are  more  forcible  and  lively,  but 
weary  the  ear  and  mind  by  monotony,  unless  relieved 
by  the  occasional  interposition  of  a  long  sentence. 
Long  sentences  require  a  more  constant  attention,  and, 
however  well  constructed  and  expressive,  soon  cease 
to  charm,  unless  the  attention  is  relieved  by  shorter 
expressions. 

It  is  evident  that  he  who  never  constructs  a  long 
sentence  can  not  reach  a  great  height  in  eloquence, 
though  indeed  often  the  strongest  emotions  and  the 
most  heart-stirring  appeals  are  couched  in  simple  lan- 
guage and  short  sentences. 

The  thrilling  description  of  a  murder  given  by 


SHORT  SENTENCES.  201 

Webster  in  one  of  his  pleas  as  a  lawyer  is  a  good  il- 
lustration of  the  power  of  short  sentences.  We  pre- 
sent a  brief  extract  to  illustrate  this  fact : 

"  Deep  sleep  had  fallen  on  the  destined  victim,  and  on  all  beneath 
his  roof.  A  healthful  old  man,  to  whom  sleep  was  sweet,  the  first 
sound  slumbers  of  the  night  held  him  in  their  soft  but  strong  em- 
brace. The  assassin  enters,  through  the  window  already  prepared, 
into  an  unoccupied  apartment.  With  noiseless  foot  he  paces  the 
lonely  hall,  half  lighted  by  the  moon  ;  he  winds  up  the  ascent  of  the 
stairs,  and  reaches  the  door  of  the  chamber.  Of  this  he  moves  the 
lock,  by  soft  and  continued  pressure,  till  it  turns  on  its  hinges ;  and 
he  enters,  and  beholds  his  victim  before  him.  The  room  was  un- 
commonly open  to  the  admission  of  light.  The  face  of  the  innocent 
sleeper  was  turned  from  the  murderer;  and  the  beams  of  the  moon, 
resting  on  the  gray  locks  of  his  aged  temple,  showed  him  where  to 
strike.  The  fatal  blow  is  given!  and  the  victim  passes,  without  a 
struggle  or  motion,  from  the  repose  of  sleep  to  the  repose  of  death  !M 

In  the  whole  of  the  plea  from  which  the  above  is 
taken,  occupying  hours  in  its  delivery,  not  a  single 
long  sentence  is  found.  On  the  other  hand,  some  of 
the  most  splendid  orations  of  ancient  and  modern 
times  abound  in  long  sentences.  It  requires  a  highly- 
cultivated  mind  to  construct  a  long  sentence  full  of 
thought,  containing  no  superfluous  parts,  and  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  interest  the  mind  and  not  offend  the  ear. 

*~ 


202 


CHAPTER  IV. 

LOOSE   SENTENCES   AND   PERIODS. 

SENTENCES  may  be  farther  divided  into  Loose 
Sentences  and  Periods. 

17.  Loose,  Sentences.  —  A  loose  sentence  consists  of 
parts  which  may  be  separated  from  each  other  with- 
out destroying  the  sense.  Sometimes  the  latter  part 
will  make  complete  sense  alone,  and  sometimes  it  is 
necessary  to  repeat  a  few  words  found  in  the  former 
part 

EXAMPLES. 

"It  seems,  gentlemen,  that  this  is  an  age  of  reason  ;  the  time  and 
the  person  have  at  last  arrived  that  are  to  dissipate  the  errors  of  past 


A  full  pause  could  be  made  after  "  reason,"  the  fol- 
lowing word  could  begin  with  a  capital  letter,  and  no 
change  would  be  made  in  the  sense.  The  whole  is 
therefore  a  loose  sentence. 

"  He  aspired  to  be  the  highest  ;  above  the  people  ;  above  the  au- 
thorities; above  the  laws;  above  his  country." 

The  above  sentence  could  close  with  either  of  the 
words,  "highest,"  "people,"  "authorities,"  or  "laws," 
and  make  complete  sense.  It  is  therefore  a  loose  sen- 
tence. 


LOOSE  SENTENCES.  203 

Loose  sentences  are  often  divided  by  the  writer 
into  their  primitive  parts,  and  punctuated  as  separate 
sentences ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  some  writers  so 
punctuate  their  writings  as  to  appear  to  write  very 
long  sentences,  which  are  really  only  a  union  of  short 
ones. 

Occasionally  a  few  connecting  words  are  omitted, 
so  that  it  is  possible  to  unite  short  sentences  together 
into  one  long  and  loose  sentence.  The  following  from 
Bancroft's  "  History  of  the  United  States  "  illustrates 
this  practice.  By  the  insertion  of  a  few  words  in 
brackets,  we  show  how  it  might  have  been  cut  up 
into  several  short  sentences : 

"And  man,  the  occupant  of  the  soil,  was  wild  as  the  savage 
scene :  [He  was]  in  harmony  with  the  rude  nature  by  which  he  was 
surrounded :  [He  was]  a  vagrant  over  the  continent,  in  constant 
warfare  with  his  fellow-man ;  strings  of  shells  [were]  his  ornament, 
his  record,  and  his  coin ;  the  bark  of  the  birch  [was]  his  canoe  ;  the 
roots  of  the  forest  [were]  among  his  resources  for  food ;  his  knowl- 
edge in  architecture  [was]  surpassed  both  in  strength  and  durability 
by  the  skill  of  the  beaver ;  bended  saplings  [were]  the  beams  of  his 
house ;  the  branches  and  rind  of  trees  [were]  its  roof;  drifts  of  forest- 
leaves  [were]  his  couch;  mats  of  bulrushes  [were]  his  protection 
against  the  winter's  cold  ;  his  religion  [was]  the  adoration  of  nature  ; 
his  morals  [were]  the  promptings  of  undisciplined  instinct :  [He  was] 
disputing  with  the  wolves  and  bears  the  lordship  of  the  soil,  and  di- 
viding with  the  squirrel  the  wild  fruits  with  which  the  universal  wood- 
lands abounded." 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  above  sentence  consists  of 
at  least  fourteen  parts,  at  the  end  of  each  of  which 
the  sense  is  complete,  and  each  of  which,  by  the  ad- 
dition of  a  word  or  two  to  supply  the  place  or  the 
punctuation,  would  make  sense  by  itself. 

Many  writers  who  abound  in  long  sentences,  use 


204  RHETORIC. 

only  loose  sentences,  and  might  punctuate  their  writ- 
ings so  as  to  seem  to  use  only  short  sentences. 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  forms  in  which  loose 
sentences  may  be  constructed,  which  the  careful  stu- 
dent of  Rhetoric  in  his  general  reading  ought  to  ob- 
serve. 

18.  Periods. — A  Period  is  a  compound  sentence 
not  making  full  sense  till  closed. 

EXAMPLES. 

"Favored  child  of  an  age  of  trial  and  struggle,  carefully  nursed 
through  a  period  of  hardship  and  anxiety,  endowed  at  that  time  by 
the  oblations  of  men  like  Harvard,  sustained  from  its  first  foundation 
by  the  paternal  arm  of  the  commonwealth,  by  a  constant  succession 
of  munificent  bequests,  and  by  the  prayers  of  all  good  men,  the  Uni- 
versity at  Cambridge  now  invites  our  homage,  as  the  most  ancient, 
the  most  interesting,  and  the  most  important  seat  of  learning  in  the 
land." 

The  following  sentence  from  the  writings  of  Rich- 
ard Hooker,  a  celebrated  divine  of  the  16th  century, 
is  a  good  specimen  of  a  period : 

"  Now,  if  Nature  should  intermit  her  course,  and  leave  altogether, 
though  it  were  but  for  a  while,  the  observation  of  her  own  laws ;  if 
those  principal  and  mother  elements  of  the  world,  whereof  all  things 
in  this  lower  world  are  made,  should  lose  the  qualities  which  now 
they  have  ;  if  the  frame  of  that  heavenly  arch  erected  over  our  heads 
should  loosen  and  dissolve  itself;  if  celestial  spheres  should  forget 
their  wonted  motions,  and  by  irregular  volubility  turn  themselves  any 
way  as  it  might  happen  ;  if  the  prince  of  the  lights  of  heaven  which 
now  as  a  giant  doth  run  his  unwearied  course,  should,  as  it  were, 
through  a  languishing  faintness,  begin  to  stand  and  to  rest  himself; 
if  the  moon  should  wander  from  her  beaten  way,  the  times  and  sea- 
sons of  the  year  blend  themselves  by  disordered  and  confused  mixt- 
ures, the  winds  breathe  out  their  last  gasp,  the  clouds  yield  no  rain, 
the  earth  be  defeated  of  heavenly  influence,  the  fruits  of  the  earth 
pine  away  as  children  at  the  withered  breasts  of  their  mothers  no 
longer  able  to  yield  them  relief:  what  would  become  of  man  himself, 
whom  these  things  now  do  all  serve?" 


PERIODS.  205 

19.  Value  of  Periods. — Great  orators  have  produced 
their  sublimest  impression  by  the  use  of  the  period. 
Let  no  student  suppose  that  he  can  command  thoughts 
worthy  of  such  a  dress  without  much  study,  or  clothe 
his  worthy  thoughts  in  such  a  stately  garb  without 
much  careful  practice.  Lord  Brougham,  one  of  the 
most  successful  orators  of  modern  times,  states  that 
he  composed  the  peroration  of  a  certain  speech  "  twen- 
ty times  over  at  least,  and  it  certainly  succeeded  in  a 
very  extraordinary  degree."  To  show  what  kind  of 
sentences  were  the  result  of  so  much  labor,  we  give 
the  peroration  to  which  he  referred — the  close  of  his 
speech  in  behalf  of  Queen  Caroline : 

"  My  lords,  I  pray  you  to  pause.  I  do  earnestly  beseech  you  to 
take  heed  !  You  are  standing  upon  the  brink  of  a  precipice — then  be- 
ware! It  will  go  forth  your  judgment,  if  sentence  shall  go  against 
the  queen.  But  it  will  be  the  only  judgment  you  ever  pronounced 
which,  instead  of  reaching  its  object,  will  return  and  bound  back 
upon  those  who  give  it.  Save  the  country,  my  lords,  from  the  hor- 
rors of  this  catastrophe.  Save  yourselves  from  this  peril ;  rescue  that 
country,  of  which  you  are  the  ornaments,  but  in  which  you  can  flour- 
ish no  longer,  when  severed  from  the  people,  than  the  blossom  when 
cut  off  from  the  roots  and  the  stem  of  the  tree.  Save  that  country, 
that  you  may  continue  to  adorn  it.  Save  the  Crown,  which  is  in 
jeopardy — the  Aristocracy,  which  is  shaken.  Save  the  Altar,  which 
must  stagger  with  the  blow  that  rends  its  kindred  throne  !  You  have 
said,  my  lords,  you  have  willed — the  Church  and  the  king  have  will- 
ed— that  the  queen  should  be  deprived  of  its  solemn  service.  She 
Has,  instead  of  that  solemnity,  the  heartfelt  prayers  of  the  people. 
She  wants  no  prayers  of  mine.  But  I  do  here  pour  forth  my  humble 
supplications  at  the  Throne  of  Mercy,  that  that  mercy  may  be  poured 
down  upon  the  people  in  a  larger  measure  than  the  merits  of  its  rul- 
ers may  deserve,  and  that  your  hearts  may  be  turned  to  justice." 

It  will  be  observed  that  it  consists  of  a  succession 
of  short  sentences,  with  an  occasional  longer  and  loose 
sentence. 


206  HUKTnRIV. 

20.  The  most  emphatic  Words  and  Thoughts  should  be 
placed  at  the  close. — In  a  well-constructed  period,  not 
only  is  the  sense  incomplete  till  the  last  clause  is  pro- 
nounced, but  the  most  emphatic  and  important  thought 
is  in  the  last  expression. 

We  subjoin  an  eloquent  period  from  the  eulogy  of 
Rufus  Choate  upon  Daniel  Webster : 

"And  yet,  if  on  some  day,  as  that  season  "  [his  college  life]  "  was 
drawing  to  its  close,  it  had  been  foretold  to  him  that  before  his  life, 
prolonged  to  little  more  than  three- score  years  and  ten,  should  end, 
he  should  see  that  country,  in  which  he  was  coming  to  act  his  part, 
expanded  across  a  continent ;  the  thirteen  States  of  1801  multiplied 
to  thirty-one ;  the  territory  of  the  North-west  and  the  great  valley  be- 
tween sown  full  of  those  stars  of  empire  ;  the  Mississippi  forded,  and 
the  Sabine  and  Rio  Grande,  and  the  Nueces ;  the  ponderous  gates  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  opened  to  shut  no  more ;  the  great  tranquil  sea 
become  our  sea ;  her  area  seven  times  larger,  her  people  five  times 
more  in  number ;  that  through  all  experiences  of  trial,  the  madness 
of  party,  the  injustice  of  foreign  powers,  the  vast  enlargement  of  her 
borders,  the  antagonisms  of  interior  interest  and  feeling,  the  spirit  of 
nationality  would  grow  stronger  still  and  more  plastic ;  that  the  tide 
of  American  feeling  would  run  even  fuller;  that  her  agriculture 
would  grow  more  scientific ;  her  arts  more  various  and  instructive, 
and  better  rewarded ;  her  commerce  winged  to  a  wider  and  still  wider 
flight ;  that  the  part  she  would  play  in  human  affairs  would  grow 
nobler  ever,  and  more  recognized  ;  that  in  this  vast  growth  of  national 
greatness  time  would  be  found  for  the  higher  necessities  of  the  soul ; 
that  her  popular  and  her  higher  education  would  go  on  advancing ; 
that  her  charities  and  all  her  enterprises  of  philanthropy  would  go 
on  enlarging  ;  that  her  age  of  lettered  glory  should  find  its  auspicious 
dawn — and  then  it  had  been  also  foretold  him  that  even  so,  with  her 
growth  and  strength,  should  his  fame  grow,  and  be  established  and 
cherished,  there  where  she  should  garner  up  his  heart ;  that,  by  long 
gradations  of  service  and  labor,  he  should  rise  to  be,  before  he  should 
taste  of  death,  of  the  peerless  among  her  great  ones  ;  that  he  should 
win  the  double  honor,  and  wear  the  double  wreath  of  professional 
and  public  supremacy ;  that  he  should  become  her  wisest  to  counsel 
and  her  most  eloquent  to  persuade ;  that  he  should  come  to  be  called 
the  Defender  of  the  Constitution,  and  the  preserver  of  honorable 
peace ;  that  the  *  austere  glory  of  suffering '  to  save  the  Union  should 


CLIMACTERIC  PERIOD.  207 

be  his  ;  that  his  death,  at  the  summit  of  greatness,  on  the  verge  of  a 
ripe  and  venerable  age,  should  be  distinguished  less  by  the  flags  at 
half-mast  on  ocean  and  lake,  less  by  the  minute-gun,  less  by  the  pub- 
lic procession  and  the  appointed  eulogy,  than  by  sudden  paleness 
overspreading  all  faces,  by  gushing  tears,  by  sorrow,  thoughtful,  bod- 
ing, silent,  the  sense  of  desolateness,  as  if  renown  and  grace  were 
dead — as  if  the  hunter's  path,  and  the  sailors,  in  the  great  solitude 
of  wilderness  or  sea,  henceforward  were  more  lonely  or  less  safe  than 
before — had  this  prediction  been  whispered,  how  calmly  had  that  per- 
fect sobriety  of  mind  put  it  all  aside  as  a  pernicious  or  idle  dream !" 


208  RHETOMIV. 


CHAPTER  V. 

INTERROGATIONS,    EXCLAMATIONS,    CLIMAX,  REPE- 
TITION. 

21.  Interrogations. — THE  prime  design  of  a  question 
is  to  ask  for  information ;  but  as  a  question  naturally 
arrests  the  attention  as  if  to  demand  a  reply,  it  is  often 
resorted  to  in  excited  feeling  to  express  an  assertion, 
by  assuming  that  no  other  reply  could  be  given  than 
the  one  which  the  speaker  believes  to  be  correct. 
Therefore  in  oratory  the  question  is  often  used  with 
great  effect. 

This  figure  is  so  natural  and  so  common  that  we 
need  not  illustrate  it  largely.  We  subjoin  a  few  speci- 
mens culled  at  random  from  good  authors  : 

"  Can  gray  hairs  render  folly  venerable  ?" 

"  Is  the  world  to  gaze  in  admiration  on  this  fine  spectacle  of  vir- 
tue ;  and  are  we  to  be  told  that  the  Being  who  gave  such  faculties  to 
one  of  his  children,  and  provides  the  theatre  for  their  exercise,  that  the 
Being  who  called  this  moral  scene  into  existence,  and  gave  it  all  its 
beauties,  is  to  be  forgotten  and  neglected,  as  of  no  consequence?" 

"  Is  talent  or  genius  confined  to  the  rich  or  powerful ;  or  is  it 
conferred  indiscriminately  on  poor  and  rich,  on  weak  and  powerful  ?" 

"  He  clothes  the  lily  ;  feeds  the  dove, 
The  meanest  insect  feels  his  care 
And  shall  not  man  confess  his  love? — 
Man,  his  offspring,  and  his  heir!" 

A  great  part  of  the  speaking  and  writing  of  earn- 


EXCLAMATIONS,  INTERJECTION!*,  CLIMAX.    209 

est  men  is  in  the  form  of  interrogatory.  He  who  does 
not  occasionally  use  it,  even  when  expecting  no  reply, 
has  reason  to  suspect  that  his  feelings  never  rise  above 
a  dead  level  of  placid  contentment.  The  only  caution 
needed  upon  the  subject  is  to  avoid  so  frequent  or 
constant  a  use  of  this  form  of  speech  as  justly  to  ex- 
pose one  to  a  charge  of  mannerism. 

22.  Exclamations. — Exclamations  are  similar  to  in- 
terrogations, and  sometimes  can  scarcely  be  distin- 
guished from  them. 

"  And  may  the  disciples  of  Washington  thus  see,  as  we  now  see, 
the  flng  of  the  Union  floating  on  the  top  of  the  Capitol ;  and  then, 
as  now,  may  the  sun  in  his  course  visit  no  land  more  free,  more  hap- 
py, more  lovely  than  this  our  own  country  !" 

"Oh  that  I  possessed  the  talent  of  eulogy,  and  that  I  might  be 
permitted  to  indulge  the  tenderness  of  friendship  in  paying  the  last 
tribute  to  his  memory !  Oh  that  I  were  capable  of  placing  this  great 
man  before  yon !" 

23.  Interjections. — The  frequent  use  of  interjections, 
such  as  oh !  ah !  alas !  give  an  appearance  of  affecta- 
tion and  frigidity  to  style,  and  should  be  avoided. 

24.  Climax. — In  the  arrangement  of  thoughts  and 
expressions,  a  peculiar  force  is  commanded  by  securing 
a  gradual  increase  of  interest  to  the  last.      Let  the 
feeblest  expression  come  first,  the  strongest  last.    Such 
an  arrangement  is  called  a  Climax. 

Something  like  a  gradual  increase  of  assertion  ap- 
pears in  the  following  sentence  from  Bancroft  : 

"The  unparalleled  persecution  of  vast  masses  of  men  for  their 
religious  creed  occasioned  but  a  new  display  of  the  power  of  humani- 
ty— the  Calvinists  preserved  their  faith  over  the  ashes  of  their  church- 
es,  and  the  bodies  of  their  murdered  ministers ;  the  power  of  a  brutal 
soldiery  was  defied  by  whole  companies  of  faithful  men  that  still  as- 


210  RHETORIC. 

sombled  to  sing  their  psalms  ;  and  from  the  country  and  from  the  city, 
from  the  comfortable  homes  of  wealthy  merchants,  from  abodes  of 
an  humble  peasantry,  from  the  workshops  of  artisans,  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  men  rose  up,  as  with  one  heart,  to  bear  testimony  to 
the  indefensible,  irresistible  right  to  freedom  of  mind." 

This  sentence  is  pleasantly  climacteric,  and  accom- 
plished rhetoricians  often  use  this  style.  A  good  peri- 
od is  usually  a  climax. 

25.  Anti-climax. — An  Anti-climax  is  sometimes  re- 
sorted  to,  to  belittle  a  subject. 

Hawthorne  speaks  of  a  custom,  which  he  intended 
to  ridicule,  as  "befitting  the  Christian,  the  good  citi- 
zen, the  horticulturist,  and  the  gentleman."  The  fol- 
lowing from  Shakspeare  is  very  beautiful : 

"What  must  the  king  do  now?  must  he  submit? 
The  king  shall  do  it :  must  he  be  disposed  ? 
The  king  shall  be  contented  :  must  he  lose 
The  name  of  king  ?  let  it  go ! 
I'll  give  my  jewels  for  a  set  of  beads ; 
My  gorgeous  palace  for  a  hermitage ; 
My  gay  apparel  for  an  almsman's  gown  ; 
My  figured  goblets  for  a  dish  of  wood ; 
My  sceptre  for  a  palmus  walking-staff; 
My  subjects  for  a  pair  of  carved  saints ; 
And  my  large  kingdom  for  a  little  grave — 
A  little,  little  grave — an  obscure  grave!" 

In  the  use  of  these  two  forms  of  expression,  care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  an  appearance  of  art.  It  is 
the  highest  art  to  conceal  art. 

26.  fiepcfitioti. — Repetition  may  be  resorted  to  with- 
out tautology  when  the  object  is  to  deepen  the  im- 
pression, and  the  magnitude  of  the  theme  will  justi- 
fy it. 

' '  lie  aspired  to  the  highest !  above  the  people !  above  the  au- 
thorities !  above  the  laws !  above  his  country !" 


REPETITION.  211 

•The  peculiarity  of  repetition  is  to  seize  upon  the 
most  prominent  thought  and  hold  the  attention  upon 
it  a  long  time.  If  the  attention  is  not  wearied,  the 
impression  is  greatly  deepened. 

Pope,  to  awaken  compassion  for  the  fate  of  an  un- 
fortunate lady,  says : 

"By  foreign  hands  thy  dying  eyes  were  closed, 
By  foreign  hands  thy  decent  limbs  composed, 
By  foreign  hands  thy  humble  grave  adorned, 
By  strangers  honored,  and  by  strangers  mourned." 

Paul  emphatically  urges  his  argument  in  the  form 
of  interrogatories  with  repetition,  thus : 

"Are  they  Hebrews?  So  am  I.  Are  they  Israelites?  So  am  I. 
Are  they  ministers  of  Christ  ?  I  am  more." 

He  adds  to  this  still  another  series  of  climacteric 
repetitions,  2  Corinthians  xi.  23.  Observe  how  the 
impression  of  the  value  of  science  is  increased  by  the 
following  repetition  of  the  word  in  Spencer's  able 
work  on  education : 

"Thus  to  the  question  with  which  we  set  out — What  knowledge 
is  of  most  worth  ? — the  uniform  reply  is — Science.  This  is  the  ver- 
dict on  all  the  counts.  For  direct  self-preservation,  or  the  main- 
tenance of  life  and  health,  the  all-important  knowledge  is — Science. 
For  that  indirect  self-preservation  which  we  call  gaining  a  livelihood, 
the  knowledge  of  greatest  value  is — Science.  For  the  due  discharge 
of  parental  functions,  the  proper  guidance  is  to  be  found  only  in — 
Science.  For  that  interpretation  of  national  life,  past  and  present, 
without  which  the  citizen  can  not  rightly  regulate  his  conduct,  the 
indispensable  key  is — Science.  Alike  for  the  most  perfect  production 
and  highest  enjoyment  of  art  in  all  its  forms,  the  needful  preparation 
is — Science.  And  for  purposes  of  discipline — intellectual,  moral, 
religious — the  most  efficient  study  is,  once  more,  Science."* 

*  Education,  Intellectual,  Moral,  and  Physical,  by  Herbert  Spen- 
cer (New  York,  1861),  p.  93. 


KUETORIC. 

It  would  be  impossible,  were  the  attempt  made, 
to  express  all  the  forms  in  which  thought  and  emo- 
tion may  clothe  themselves.  Careful  observation, 
when  reading  or  listening  to  speakers,  will  enable  the 
student  to  secure  a  great  variety  in  his  own  expres- 
sions. 


RHYTHM.  213 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  MELODY  OF  SENTENCES. 

27.  Rhythm. — IN  what  may  be  called  the  orator- 
ical style,  a  style  particularly  pleasing  when  pro- 
nounced, a  peculiar  balance  of  sentences  is  often  pre- 
served. Prose  has  its  rhythm  as  well  as  poetry,  only 
it  is  less  restrained,  less  artificial,  and  more  varied. 

A  rhythm  is  often  secured  by  a  proper  admixture 
of  long  sentences  and  short,  loose  sentences  and  peri- 
ods, interspersed  with  various  forms  of  expression, 
such  as  interrogations,  exclamations,  repetitions,  and 
climaxes ;  but  also  a  single  long  sentence  may  have 
a  rhythmical  balance  of  its  parts.  For  instance,  ob- 
serve the  following : 

"As  we  perceive  the  shadow  to  have  moved  along  the  dial-plate, 
but  did  not  perceive  it  moving ;  and  it  appears  that  the  grass  has 
grown,  though  nobody  ever  saw  it  grow :  so  the  advances  we  make 
in  knowledge,  as  they  consist  of  such  minute  steps,  are  only  perceiv- 
able by  the  distance." 

"And  the  king  was  much  moved,  and  went  up  to  the  chamber 
over  the  gate,  and  wept ;  and  as  he  went  up,  thus  he  said :  O  my 
son  Absalom,  my  son,  my  son  Absalom  !  Would  to  God  I  had  died 
for  thee,  O  Absalom,  my  son,  my  son  !" 

"  It  is  sown  in  corruption  ;  it  is  raised  in  incorruption.  It  is  sown 
a  natural  body ;  it  is  raised  a  spiritual  body." 

"  The  ocean  may  roll  its  waves,  the  warring  winds  may  join  their 
forces,  the  thunder  may  shake  the  skies,  and  the  lightnings  pass 
swiftly  from  cloud  to  cloud ;  but  not  the  forces  of  the  elements  com- 


214  RHETORIC. 

bincd,  not  the  sound  of  thunders,  nor  of  many  seas,  though  they, 
united  in  one  peal,  and  directed  to  one  point,  can  shake  the  security 
of  the  tomb." 

28.  Advantages  of  Rhythm. — Not  only   does  the 
harmony  of  a  sentence  please  the  ear,  but  it  com- 
mands attention,  aids  the  memory,  and  deepens  the 
impression. 

It  will  be  observed  in  the  chapter  on  Antithesis, 
that  the  use  of  this  figure  of  speech  is  almost  invaria- 
bly accompanied  by  a  balance  of  words,  correspond- 
ing with  the  contrasted  thoughts. 

"Gold  can  not  make  a  man  happy,  nor  rags  render  him  misera- 
ble." 

"We  charge  him  with  having  broken  his  coronation-oath,  and  we 
are  told  that  he  kept  his  marriage  vow !  We  accuse  him  of  having 
given  up  his  people  to  the  merciless  inflictions  of  the  most  hot-head- 
ed and  bard-hearted  of  prelates,  and  the  defense  is,  that  he  took  his 
little  son  on  his  knee  and  kissed  him  !" 

"  The  first  sentence  which  broke  the  awful  silence  was  a  quota- 
tion from  Rousseau :  •  Socrates  died  like  a  philosopher,  but  Jesus 
<  'i,rist — like  a  God  !'  Never  before  did  I  completely  understand  what 
Demosthenes  meant  by  laying  such  a  stress  on  delivery." 

29.  Rough  and  Smooth  Sounds.  —  Some  writers  on 
Rhetoric  have  recommended  a  particular  attention  to 
the  degree  of  roughness  or  smoothness  of  the  sounds 
of  various  words,  and  to  reject  words  that  are  made 
up  of  several  consonants  in  succession,  such  as  ad- 
judged,  sixth;  to  avoid  the  immediate  succession  of 
vowels,  such  as  in  lineal,  reappear,  and  to  secure  a 
happy  combination  of  sounds.     Such  rules  are  more 
finical  than  wise.     Use  words  to  express  thoughts, 
and  pronounce  them  distinctly. 

It  may  be  well,  however,  to  observe  that  sentences 


THE  SOUND    OF  SENTENCES.  215 

closing  with  unimportant  words,  and  particularly  with 
a  succession  of  unaccented  syllables,  such  as  immobil- 
ity, incompatibility,  are  not  pleasing  to  the  ear. 

Sentences  that  interpose  expressions  between  a 
preposition  and  its  object  are  often  disagreeable. 

"He  was  greatly  indebted  to,  and  had  received  many  favors/row, 
and  finally  was  induced  to  repay,  his  friend,"  is  awkward. 

Better  recast  the  sentence  thus:  . 

"He  was  greatly  indebted  to  his  friend,  having  received  from 
him  many  favors,  and  was  induced  to  repay  him." 

Sometimes  qualifying  phrases  are  inserted,  as  in- 
deed single  adverbs  and  adjectives  also  are,  out  of 
their  proper  place. 

"  They  determined  to  rebel  against  a  nation  of  which  they  con- 
stituted a  part,  and  to  which  they  had  sworn  fidelity  not  only,  but 
also  to  erect  a  bastard  republic  in  its  place." 

The  "not  only"  should  be  before  "rebel"  Such 
solecisms  can  be  tolerated  occasionally,  but  when  seem- 
ingly from  a  fondness  for  the  sound  a  speaker  has 
a  peculiarity  of  this  kind,  it  is  an  offensive  man- 
nerism. 

30.  How  far  should  the  Sound  of  Sentences  be  regard- 
ed ? — There  is  a  power  about  the  mere  sound  of  words, 
and  when  a  valuable  idea  is  clothed  in  a  melodious 
expression  it  lingers  long  in  the  memory,  and  is  often 
repeated.  "  The  old  man  eloquent,"  "  the  almighty 
dollar,"  "  masterly  inactivity,"  "  master  of  the  situa- 
tion," "  Let  us  have  peace,"  are  examples.  There  is 
also  such  a  thing  as  a  harmony  of  the  sound  with  the 
sense.  Scorn  hisses,  anger  jerks  its  words  out  abrupt- 
ly, love  chooses  smooth  and  liquid  expressions.  Mo- 


216  RHETORIC. 

tion  also  may  be  imitated.     This  has  been  attempted 
by  many  in  poetry. 

But  little  attention  should  be  given  to  this  subject, 
except  by  the  way  of  rejecting  disagreeable  combina- 
tions of  sounds,  especially  when  revising  a  production. 
It  has  been  well  remarked  by  John  Stuart  Mill,  of 
the  ancient  writers,  who  are  supposed  to  have  been 
very  critical : 

"  The  ancients,  in  the  good  times  of  their  literature,  would  as  soon 
have  thought  of  a  coat  in  the  abstract,  as  of  style  in  the  abstract :  the 
f  a  style,  in  their  eyes,  was,  that  it  exactly  fitted  the  thought. 
Their  first  aim  was,  by  the  assiduous  study  of  their  subject,  to  secure 
to  themselves  thoughts  worth  expressing ;  their  next  was  to  find  words 
which  would  convey  those  thoughts  with  the  utmost  degree  of  nicety ; 
and  only  when  this  was  made  sure  did  they  think  of  ornament."* 

Whether  "  the  ancients  "  did  this  or  not,  all  ought 
to  do  it  who  seek  perfection  in  style.  Probably  a 
larger  portion  of  the  moderns  than  of  the  ancients 
succeed  in  this  effort. 

31.  Is  the  English  Language  rough  or  smootfi  ? — The 
English  language  was  originally  rough  and  harsh  to 
the  ear,  and  the  disuse  of  nearly  all  the  old  Anglo- 
Saxon  variations  of  declension  and  conjugation,  and 
the  razeeing  of  so  many  polysyllables  down  into  mon- 
osyllables have,  in  some  instances,  made  the  enuncia- 
tion still  more  jerking  and  harsh.  But  at  the  same 
time  many  guttural  sounds  have  been  dropped  out, 
as  from  the  words  daughter,  laughter,  and  some  smooth- 
sounding  words  and  terminations  have  been  adopted 
from  the  French  and  other  sources,  so  that  the  lan- 
guage now  commands  a  great  variety  of  roughness 
*  J.  Stuart  Mill's  Dissertations,  vol  i.  p.  137. 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  217 

and  smoothness.  Byron,  eulogizing  the  Italian  lan- 
guage in  a  rather  loose  stanza,  unfavorably  contrasts 
with  it  the  English  tongue. 

**  I  love  the  language,  that  soft  bastard  Latin, 

Which  melts  like  kisses  from  a  female  mouth, 
And  sounds  as  if  it  should  be  writ  on  satin, 

With  syllables  which  breathe  of  the  sweet  South  ; 
And  gentle  liquids  gliding  all  so  pat  in, 

That  not  a  single  accent  seems  uncouth, 
Like  our  harsh  Northern,  whistling,  grunting,  guttural, 
Which  we're  obliged  to  hiss,  and  spit,  and  sputter  all." 

On  account  of  the  prevalence  of  the  hissing  sound 
of  5  in  our  language,  those  who  speak  to  have  been 
called  by  foreigners  a  nation  of  serpents.  This  sound 
is  much  more  preyalent  in  some  speakers  than  in  oth- 
ers. 

The  harshness  of  the  language  is  alleviatedlby  the 
introduction  of  many  long  and*melodious  words  from 
the  Latin  and  other  languages,  and  our  words  may  be 
combined  so  as  to  present  a  succession  of  remarkably 
melodious  sounds ;  also  the  most  of  the  old  guttural 
pronunciations  have  been  dropped. 

32.  Elasticity  of  the  English  Language. — The  elastic- 
ity of  the  English  language  is  great.  It  combines 
harshness,  melodiousness,  lassitude,  and  strength.  Pas- 
sages in  it  are  as  smooth  as  any  in  the  ancient  Greek 
or  modern  Italian ;  as  majestic  as  any  in  the  ancient 
Latin  or  modern  Spanish ;  as  strong  as  the  German, 
as  precise  as  the  French.  Still  there  are  certain  par- 
ticulars in  which  nearly  every  language  is  superior  to 
any  other,  but  it  may  be  doubted  whether  there  is  any 
speech,  ancient  or  modern,  which  combines  so  many 

K 


218  RHETORIC. 

opposite  capabilities  as  the  English.  Any  ambiguity 
in  another  language  may  be  directly  expressed,  or  par- 
alleled, in  the  English,  and  at  the  same  time  a  thought 
may  be  so  definitely  enunciated  that  none  but  the 
willfully  blind  or  perverse  can  mistake  it.  Thought 
can  be  condensed  into  a  few  short  words,  or  spread 
out  over  an  almost  interminable  surface.  The  sub- 
limest  emotion  may  be  uttered,  and  the  most  delicate 
feeling  find  appropriate  dress. 

33.  Onomatopy. —  Onomatopoeia,  or  Onomatopy,  is 
the  name  given  to  the  figure  of  speech  in  which  the 
sound  of  the^vord  indicates  either  an  actual  sound  or 
a  motion,  as  rub-a-dub-dub,  for  the  sound  of  a  drum, 
hiss,  crash,  quick,  lazy. 

Some  believe  that  the  first  words  spoken  were  all 
onomatopoetic,  and  that  gradually,  on  that  narrow 
foundation,  the  whole  auperstructure  of  language  has 
been  built  up.  If  so,  a  natural  instinct  is  gratified  by 
onomatopoetic  expressions,  and  by  harmonious  associ- 
ations of  words  and  thought  Thus,  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  soft  plaintive  music,  a  succession  of  smooth 
sounds,  easily  uttered,  would  charm  at  once  the  sense 
and  the  judgment,  A  battle,  or  a  storm  at  sea,  or  an 
earthquake,  would  require  a  different  dress.  Perhaps 
every  Ehetoric  in  the  English  language  published 
since  Milton  wrote  has  had  the  two  following  exam- 
ples from  the  Paradise  Lost.  The  first  describes  the 
opening  pf  hell's  gates  : 

"  On  a  sodden  open  fly 
"With  impetuous  recoil,  and  jarring  sound, 
The  infernal  doors  ;  and  on  their  hinges  grate 
Harsh  thunder." 


ONONATOPY.  219 

Heaven's  doors  swing  open  more  smoothly,  thus  : 

"  Heaven  opened  wide 
Her  ever-during  gates,  harmonious  sound, 
On  golden  hinges  turning." 

Motion  also  can  be  indicated  by  the  sound  of  words. 
Pope  excelled  in  this  refinement. 

"  When  Ajax  strives  some  rock's  vast  weight  to  throw, 
The  line  too  labors,  and  the  words  move  slow." 

Contrast  this  slow  movement  with  the  rapid  one 
which  follows : 

11  Not  so  when  swift  Camilla  scours  the  plain, 
Flies  o'er  the  unbending  corn,  and  skims  along  the  main." 

That  beautiful  poem  of  Bryant,  Thanatopsis,  should 
be  read  aloud  to  exhibit  its  merits,  not  the  least  of 
which  is  the  fitness  of  the  sound  to  the  soothing  and 
triumphant  hope  which  it  expresses.  Observe  the 
music  of  the  concluding  lines,  and  its  correspondence 
with  the  quiet  close  of  a  good  life : 

"  So  live,  that  when  thy  summons  comes  to  join 
The  innumerable  caravan,  that  moves 
To  that  mysterious  realm,  where  each  shall  take 
His  chamber  in  the  silent  halls  of  death  ; 
Then  go  not  like  the  quarry  slave  at  night, 
Scourged  to  his  dungeon,  but,  sustained  and  soothed 
By  an  unfaltering  trust,  approach  the  grave, 
Like  one  who  wraps  the  drapery  of  his  couch 
About  him,  and  lies  down  to  pleasant  dreams." 

34.  Conclusion. — It  is  very  easy  to  carry  attention 
to  the  sound  of  sentences  to  an  excess.  In  the  heat 
of  composition,  oral  or  written,  it  is  well  to  give  but 
little  thought  to  it,  but  in  revision  it  should  not  be 
wholly  neglected.  In  this  way  appropriate  habits 
will  be  formed. 


220  RHETORIC. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

STYLE. 

35.  Definition. — THE  peculiar  mode  of  expression 
usually  employed  by  any  person  is  called  his  style. 

Styles  differ  as  much  as  human  countenances,  so 
that  though  millions  may  exist  at  once,  no  two  are 
precisely  alike.  Still  they  may  be  classified  in  a  few 
general  groups. 

There  are  many  different  methods  of  expressing 
the  same  thought  or  feeling,  each  of  which  may  be 
called  a  different  style. 

The  most  of  authors  have  a  style  that  is  either  nat- 
ural or  habitual  to  them,  so  that  having  read  a  few 
of  their  writings,  you  come  to  expect  that  whatever 
you  read  from  them  hereafter  will  bear  a  certain  sim- 
ilarity to  what  you  have  read.  Careful  critics  will 
often  detect  the  production  of  a  favorite  author  in  a 
writing  that  does  not  bear  his  name.  How  peculiar, 
for  instance,  are  the  styles  of  Samuel  Johnson,  Addi- 
son,  Bunyan,  Dean  Swift,  Carlyle,  Macaulay,  Daniel 
Webster,  Edward  Everett,  and  Charles  Dickens. 

36.  W J/ a  f  produces  Vari't>/^ — Peculiarities  of  style 
are  the  outgrowth  of  an  author's  nature,  or  the  effect 
of  his  habits.     If  an  author  has  no  peculiar  style,  but 
seems  to  write  equally  well  in  so  great  a  variety  of 


VAH1KT1KS    AV    ST  }'/./.  221 

methods  as  to  have  no  style  of  his  own,  he  is  likely  to 
be  weak  in  all  his  methods.  "Non  omnes  omniaposm- 
mus  »  —  «  Every  body  can  not  do  every  thing."  Each 
man  should  choose  his  weapons  or  his  tools,  and  learn 
to  'work  efficiently  with  them.  Fortunate  is  he  who 
chooses  tools  suited  to  his  constitution  and  his  genius. 
And  yet  it  is  well  for  a  student  to  practice  for  a  time 
many  different  styles. 

37.  Some  Varieties  in  Style.  —  Some  of  the  varieties 
of  style  are  the  following:  The  Saxon  style,  in  which 
short  words,  mostly  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  or 
the  mother-language,  are  principally  employed.  The 
Latin  style,  in  which  the  long  words  mostly  derived 
from  the  Latin  language  are  abundant.  Of  course 
there  may  be  an  endless  variety  of  styles  on  this  mat- 
ter alone.  The  abrupt  style,  made  up  entirely  or 
principally  of  short  sentences.  The  flowing  style, 
made  up  of  long  sentences.  The  loose  style,  using 
only  loose  sentences  when  long  ones  are  employed. 
The  periodic  style,  abounding  in  periods.  The  dry 
style,  which  is  destitute  of  figurative  expressions,  of 
wit,  and  of  every  thing  to  please  the  fancy  or  interest 
the  mind,  except  the  naked  statement  of  facts  and 
opinions.  The  florid  style,  abounding  in  tropes,  met- 
aphors, and  other  figures.  There  may  be  several  sub- 
ordinate styles  under  this  head,  as  the  tropical  style, 
the  metaphorical  style,  the  allegorical  style,  the  hy- 
perbolical style,  and  many  others.  The  idiomatic 
style,  abounding  in  idioms,  colloquialisms,  and  pro- 
verbial expressions.  The  scholastic  style,  in  which 
the  sentences  are  all  artificially  constructed  with 


t- 


RHETORIC. 

great  care,  so  as  not  to  offend  the  severest  grammati- 
cal rules,  and  in  which  the  words  are  used  with  es- 
pecial regard  to  their  etymological  meaning.  The 
logical  style,  in  which  the  author  frequently  argues, 
introducing  syllogisms,  or  presents  conclusions,  pre- 
ceded frequently  by  such  words  as  "  hence,"  "  thence," 
''therefore,"  and  "wherefore."  The  witty  style,  of 
which  there  may  be  many  classes.  In  some,  puns, 
quirks,  singular  combinations  of  words  or  thoughts 
are  sought. 

Various  applications  of  any  of  the  particular  princi- 
ples illustrated  in  the  preceding  part  of  this  book  will 
cause  varieties  of  style. 

38.  Variations  in  Style  innumerable. — It  is  unneces- 
sary to  consider  all  the  possible  styles,  and  every  in- 
telligent student  perceives  that  they  are  innumerable 
and  indescribable.     The  only  practical  questions  wor- 
thy of  consideration  are :  Must  every  style,  to  be  com- 
mendable, embrace  certain  qualities?     li  so,  what  are 
they  ?    What  faults  should  be  avoided  ?    What  is  the 
best  method  to  obtain  a  good  style  ? 

39.  No  one  Style  can  be  pronounced  best —  It  would 
be  a  serious  fault  in  a  Rhetoric  to  recommend  any 
particular  style  as  essentially  the  best.     No  teacher 
does  so  much  harm,  in  Rhetoric  or  Elocution,  as  one 
who  induces  all  his  pupils  to  strive  to  adopt  one  par- 
ticular fashion  of  writing  or  speaking.     Trees  may  be 
trimmed  into  the  same  shape,  but  they  will  not  re- 
main so  unless  they  are  dead.     No  two  leading  minds 
in  the  world  ever  had  the  same  method  of  expressing 
or  enforcing  thought 


PERSPICUITY.  223 

There  are  certain  qualities  that  should  always  be 
aimed  at,  which  we  will  mention. 

40.  Perspicuity. — Perspicuity  is  an  essential  element 
of  a  good  style. 

"  Thus  let  ine  drop  into  each  author's  ear 
A  piece  of  counsel :  Keep  your  meaning  clear, 
Your  statements  lucid ;  for  of  this  be  sure, 
That  dullness  only  ever  is  obscure." 

This  has  already  been  recommended  in  the  exami- 
nation of  words.*  It  should  also  be  remembered  in 
the  construction  of  sentences. 

41.  Should  it  always  be  particularly  Sought? — The 
writer  may  consider  for  whom  he  is  writing.     If  for 
profound  scholars,  he  need  not  express  his  thought 
more  than  once,  and  that  in  as  few  words  as  possible, 
and  may  use  illustrations  and  allusions  which  to  other 
minds  would  be  unintelligible.     If  he  is  writing  for 
people  unfamiliar  with  the  topic  presented,  he  may  re- 
peat his  thoughts  in  new  words  and  with  new  illustra- 
tions, till  he  is  sure  that  it  is  understood.     Great  care 
will  be  requisite  to  hit  the  happy  medium  between 
too  great  brevity  and  too  great  diffuseness. 

It  is  a  characteristic  of  the  style  of  the  best  advo- 
cates and  pleaders  before  juries,  that  they  dwell  upon 
and  repeat  their  thoughts  till  they  are  sure  of  having 
made  an  impression.  Tediousness  is  however  to  be 
avoided. 

42.  Pre-requisite  to  Perspicuity. — It  is  an  infallible 
pre-requisite  to  perspicuity  that  a  man  should  thor- 
oughly understand  and  clearly  perceive  what  he  is 

*  See  pp.  68-70. 


224  RHETORIC. 

trying  to  state.  Muddy  thoughts  naturally  employ 
uncertain  words.  Therefore  the  profoundest  think- 
ers, the  best  speakers,  the  ablest  writers,  are  generally 
perspicuous.* 

A  writer  may  often  improve  his  style  in  this  re- 
spect by  reading  his  productions  to  others,  and  care- 
fully noting  the  expressions  which  are  misinterpreted 
or  not  understood,  also  by  reading  his  own  produc- 
tions a  long  time  after  they  were  written,  and  by  not- 
ing what  appears  to  himself  obscure. 

43.  Personify  violated  sometimes  by  Parentheses. — 
Perspicuity  is  often  violated  by  the  too  frequent  use 
of  parenthetical  clauses  or  sentences,  which,  by  divert- 
ing the  attention  from  the  main  point  in  view,  confuse 
and  befog  the  hearer.  Even  some  of  -the  most  ele- 
gant writers  in  the  language  err  in  this  respect,  aris- 
ing from  the  fact,  undoubtedly,  that  their  productions 
were  intended  to  be  read,  and  not  to  be  spoken.  The 
following  sentence  from  Thomas  De  Quincey,  whose 
style  has  been  much  commended  by  some,  is  an  ex- 
ample : 

"  The  fact  really  was,  that  the  human  intellect  had  been  for  some 
time  outgrowing  its  foul  religions ;  clamorously  it  began  to  demand 
some  change ;  but  how  little  it  was  able  to  effect  that  change  for  itself, 
is  evident  from  no  example  more  than  that  of  Plato ;  for  he,  while 
dismissing  as  fables  some  of  the  grosser  monstrosities  which  the  pa- 
gan Pantheon  offered,  loaded  in  effect  that  deity,  whom  he  made  a 
concurrent  party  to  his  own  schemes  for  man,  with  vile  qualities  quite 

*  "The  greatest  thinkers  and  writers  tho  world  has  yet  seen  have 
not  been  obscure ;  they  may  give  some  trouble  sometimes,  but  their 
meaning  for  the  most  part  is  plain  enough,  and,  with  a  little  extra 
diligence,  even  their  difficult  passages  become  so"  (Rev.  Henry  Rog- 
ers's  Greyson  Letters,  p.  571). 

•f  .  . 


UNITY.  225 

as  degrading  as  any  which  he  removed  ;  and  in  effect  so  much  the 
worse,  as  regarded  the  result,  because,  wanting  the  childish  monstrosi- 
ties of  the  mythologic  legends,  they  had  no  benefit  from  any  alle- 
goric interpretations  in  the  background."* 

.  44.  Unity  Defined. — The  unity  of  a  sentence  is  vio- 
lated in  long,  complicated,  and  confused  paragraphs. 
Such  a  style  is  not  adapted  to  public  speaking,  or  to 
be  understood  from  the  utterance.  One  can  only  com- 
prehend it  with  the  book  before  him,  allowing  him 
frequently  to  review  what  he  has  read,  tlnity  re- 
quires that  a  sentence  should  have  a  leading  subject, 
around  which  all  the  subordinate  parts  naturally  clus- 
ter, and  the  predicate  should  clearly  belong  to  the 
leading  subject  alone.  If  this  is  violated  a  sentence 
becornes  a  mob  without  a  leader,  instead  of  an  army 
in  a  stately  march. 

Still  too  much  regard  must  not  be  paid  to  this  at 
all  times,  or  the  sentences  will  have  an  appearance  of 
uniformness  and  stiffness. 

45. 'Perspicuity  may  be  Intentionally  Violated. — It 
has  been  taken  for  granted,  in  the  recommendation 
of  perspicuity,  that  the  object  of  the  author  is  to  con- 
vey information ;  if  he  has  another  object,  his  style 
must  be  adapted  to  accomplish  his  purpose.  He  may 
intend  to  conceal  thought,  or  simply  to  pass  away 
time,  or  to  excite  feeling,  or  to  suggest  more  than  he 
says,  or  to  astonish  by  a  strange  use  of  language ;  and 
in  such  productions  perspicuity  may  be  of  no  value, 
and  may  be  even  a  blemish.  This  thought  naturally 
suggests  another  element  of  a  good  style. 

*  De  Quincey's  Historical  and  Critical  Essays  (Boston,  1853),  vol. 
i.  p.  195. 

K2 


226  RHETORIC. 

46.  Style  should  be  adapted  to  its  Purpose. — A  good 
style  is  always  adapted  to  the  purpose  in  view. 

If  an  address  is  made  to  children,  such  language  as 
they  can  be  expected  to  appreciate  is  employed.  To 
use  recondite  terms,  long  involved  sentences,  argu- 
ments requiring  close  attention  and  careful  ratiocina- 
tion, in  an  address  to  children,  would  be  very  absurd. 

Witticisms  in  a  funeral  oration,  short,  abrupt  ex- 
pressions in  the  description  of  a  beautiful  landscape, 
poetical  terms  in  a  scientific  treatise,  quotations  from 
the  Bible  in  a  burlesque  performance,  would  all  offend 
a  man  of  good  sense. 

The  style  will  correspond  with  the  thought  if  the 
writer  is  a  man  of  power  and  culture.  When  he  rea- 
sons, he  will  use  a  clear,  logical  style ;  when  he  per- 
suades, he  will  repeat  and  enforce  his  views  by  many 
illustrations,  according  to  the  abundance  of  his  in- 
formation and  the  vigor  of  his  mind.  Sometimes  he 
will  use  many  short  sentences,  sometimes  perhaps  a 
flowing  period ;  sometimes  he  will  question,  some- 
times command.  Sometimes  his  connected  thoughts 
will  flow  out  in  a  stream  that  would,  properly  print- 
ed, form  a  paragraph  covering  many  pages,  and  some- 
times the  thoughts  will  find  their  most  adequate  ex- 
pressions in  disconnected  sentences,  each  a  paragraph. 

47.  A  Variety  should  be  sought — If  a  young  writer 
finds  himself  falling  into  a  monotonous  style  of  ex- 
pressing his  thoughts,  he  should  make  assiduous  ef- 
forts to  break  it  up.     The  best  of  styles  wearies  us  if 
a  speaker  or  writer  always  uses  the  same.     Even  such 
a  work  as  Gibbon's  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Koman 


i    SPECIFIC  STYLE  POOH.  227 

Empire"  would  be  more  interesting  if  its  style  was 
more  varied. 

On  this  subject  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  has  well  said : 

"To  have  a  specific^tyle  is  to  be  poor  in  speech.  If  we  remem- 
ber that  in  the  far  past  men  had  only  nouns  and  verbs  to  convey 
their  ideas  with,  and  that  from  then  to  now  the  growth  has  been  to- 
ward a  greater  number  of  implements  of  thought,  and  consequently 
toward  a  greater  complexity  and  variety  in  their  combinations,  we 
may  infer  that  we  are  now,  in  our  use  of  sentences,  much  what  the 
primitive  man  was  in  his  use  of  words;  and  that  a  continuance  of 
the  process  that  lias  hitherto  gone  on  must  produce  heterogeneity  in 
our  modes  of  expression." 


UHSTO&IQ. 


CHAPTER  VIIL 

IDIOMS  AXD   PROVERBS. 

CRITICS  often  characterize  some  particular  author 
as  employing  an  idiomatic  style,  but  what  is  properly 
meant  by  the  phrase  has  perhaps  never  been  accu- 
rately defined. 

•  48.  Definition. — An  Idiom  is  a  collection  of  words 
justified  by  custom,  and  yet  used  so  peculiarly  that 
other  words,  meaning  nearly  or  quite  the  same  thing, ' 
can  not  with  propriety  be  used  in  the  same  way.  It 
is  also  applied  to  expressions  in  which  the  strict  rules 
of  general  grammar  are  not  obeyed,  so  that  they  can 
not  be  translated  literally  into  another  language  and 
be  understood.  "  Not  at  all "  is  an  Idiom.  Substitute 
neither  for  not,  and  the  phrase  "  neither  at  all "  be- 
comes unpleasant,  though  perhaps  in  some  combina- 
tions it  might  barely  be  excused.  Substitute  for 
"aW"  every  one,  and  "not  at  every  one"  becomes 
absurd ;  nor  can  "  not  at  all "  be  translated  literally 
into  any  other  language.  And  yet  this  unconstruable 
expression  is  so  convenient  and  strong  that  we  can 
not  at  all  think  of  sparing  it  from  our  language. 

49.  Every  Language  has  peculiar  Idioms. —  Every 
language  has  its  own  stock  of  idioms.  The  Latins, 
instead  of  saying  with  their  own  words  "  I  have  a 


ANCIENT  IDIOMS.  229 

book,"  would  generally  have  said  "To  me  is  a  book  " 
(mihi  est  liber).  The  Greeks,  though  very  critical  in 
the  use  of  words,  still  allowed  their  best  speakers  to 
use  two  negatives  in  one  expression  without  destroy- 
ing each  other,  such  as,  "  He  was  not  able  neither  to 
speak  nor  to  act,"  meaning,  as  we  should  say,  "He 
/was  able  neither  to  speak  nor  to  act." 

50.  Idioms  abound  in  our  ancient  best  Writings. — En- 
glish idioms  abound  in  our  oldest  authors.  We  sub- 
join a  few:  "Get  you  gone,"  for  "Begone,  or  take 
yourself  away:"  "  You  had  best,"  or  "  You  were  best," 
for  "  It  would  be  t^st  for  you,"  as 

"Answer  every  man  directly, 
Ay,  and  truly,  you  were  best. " 

"  The  onset  was  so  terrible  that  the  soldiers  could 
not  stand  their  ground."  Substitute  abide  for  "  stand," 
or  place  for  "ground,"  and  observe  at  once  the  anom- 
aly of  the  expression,  and  yet  shall  "stand  your 
ground  "  be  banished  from  our  language  ? 

The  "Pilgrim's  Progress"  contains  many  such 
idioms  as  "hold  me  to  it,"  "be  of  good  cheer,"  "all 
this  while,"  "  come  to  a  point,"  "  you  lie  at  the  catch," 
"  let  us  mend  our  pace,"  etc.  Montaigne  says,  "  To 
know  by  heart  is  not  to  know,"  in  which  "  to  know  by 
heart "  means  merely  to  have  in  the  memory,  and  not 
to  think  out  as  an  original  thought.  "  He  is  an  out 
and  out  gentleman."  "  I  will  come  by-and-by"  which 
used  to  mean  immediately,  but  now  means  some  little 
time  hence.  In  Matthew  xxi.  13,  we  read,  "  When  trib- 
ulation or  persecution  ariseth  because  of  the  word,  by- 
and-by  he  is  offended,"  meaning  immediately.  The 


230  HHETORIC. 

signification  has  degenerated  to  "  before  long."  So 
careful  a  writer  as  Marsh,  when  writing  on  the  English 
language,  said,  "The  project  took  air,"  for  the  project 
became  public.  "  Get  out  of  the  way,"  "  Made  over 
his  property  ;"  "  He  sings  a  good  song,"  for  he  sings 
well,  "  Our  debts  and  our  sins  are  generally  greater 
than  we  think  for"  are  expressions  that  we  cull  from 
the  classic  writers  of  the  English  language.  "A  good 
character  should  be  employed  as  a  means  of  doing 
good,"  instead  of  a  mean  of  doing  good,  though  such 
a  writer  as  Sir  William  Hamilton,  and*  many  others, 
have  lately  revived  the  old  custom  of  using  mean  for 
means  in  similar  expressions.  "In  our  midst  "  is  an 
expression  justified  by  honorable  usage,  but  the  prun- 
ing and  hypercritical  spirit  of  modern  times  begins  to 
discard  it.  Cowper  wrote,  "I  had  much  rather  be  my- 
self the  slave;"  and  Shakspeare  wrote,  "Had  you 
rather  Caesar  were  living,  and  die  all  slaves,  than  that 
Caesar  were  dead,  to  live  all  freemen  ?"  A  modern 
American  would  write,  "  Would  you  rather  choose 
that  Caesar  should  live,  and  you  all  die  slaves,  or  that 
Caesar  should  die,  and  you  all  live  freemen?"  But 
which  is  the  more  nervous?  "As  it  were"  is  used 
for  "if  you  will  allow  the  expression  or  thought." 
"  When  saw  we  thee  a  hungered,  and  fed  thee?"  "  No 
matter  what  fields  are  desolated,  what  fortresses  sur- 
rendered," etc.  The  phrase  no  matter  is  an  English 
idiom,  forcible,  and  that  can  not  be  spared.  "  Methi/tk* 
I  see  it  now,"  said  Everett,  in  introducing  a  vision  of 
the  Mayflower,  with  its  cargo  of  Puritans,  using  an  old 
Anglo-Saxon  idiom,  meaning  something  more  than  / 


ID  10 MX  AND   PROVERBS.  231 

think,  and  similar  to  "  it  occurs  to  me,"  "  it  rises  invol- 
untarily to  my  sight."  "The  more  he  knows,  the 
more  he  is  desirous  of  knowing."  "  The  words  took 
effect."  "  Who  is  as  often  out  in  his  encomiums  as  in 
his  censure,"  says  Sir  William  Hamilton. 

Observe  the  idiomatic  strength  of  the  following 
from  a  justly  admired  passage  of  Milton : 

"  Though  all  the  winds  of  doctrine  were  let  loose  to  piny  upon  the 
earth,  so  Truth  be  in  the  field,  we  do  injuriously  by  licensing  and  pro- 
hibiting her.  Let  her  and  Falsehood  grapple.  Who  ever  knew  Truth 
put  to  the  worse  in  a  free  and  open  encounter  ?" 

Take  another  much-admired  passage  from  the  same 
author : 

"  As  good  almost  kill  a  man  as  kill  a  book ;  who  kills  a  man,  kills 
a  reasonable  creature — God's  image ;  but  ho  who  destroys  a  good 
book  kills  reason  itself;  kills  the  imago  of  God,  as  it  were,  in  the  eye." 

51.  An  Idiomatic  Style. — A  writer  who  uses  freely 
and  naturally  the  idioms  of  the  English  language  may 
with  propriety  be  termed  an  idiomatic  writer.    It  will 
be  found,  however,  that  the  oldest  writers  in  the  lan- 
guage use  the  most  of  them,  and  that  as  grammatical 
cultivation  is  attended  to,  there  are  more  of  the  writers 
who,  either  from  a  fear  of  criticism  or  from  disinclina- 
tion, seldom  or  never  use  a  good,  strong,  healthy  idi- 
om.    Their  expressions  are  toned  down  to  such  gram- 
matical accuracy  that  they  could  be  literally  translated 
into  any  other  language  without  exciting  any  more 
attention  than  they  do  in  their  own ! 

52.  Proverbs. — But,  besides  idioms,  there  are  prov- 
erbs, many  of  which  are  peculiar  in  style  as  well  as 
in  thought.     A  proverb  is  a  sententious  expression, 


232  ItllETORIC. 

weighty  in  meaning,  and  which  is  frequently  repeated 
without  reference  to  its  origin.  We  say  an  expression 
has  "  passed  into  a  proverb,"  when  it  is  often  quoted 
as  common  property.  Such  proverbs  as  "Honesty  is 
the  best  policy,"  "  Live  while  you  live,"  "  Give  an 
inch,  and  he  will  take  an  ell,"  "  There  is  but  a  step 
from  the  sublime  to  the  ridiculous,"  are  well  known. 
Some  proverbs  are  recognized  as  vulgar,  others  are  el- 
evated and  noble.  One  book  in  the  Bible  is  entitled 
a  "  Book  of  Proverbs,"  and  contains  some  which  are 
in  common  use,  though  the  verbal  beauty  and  force 
of  a  proverb  are  generally  destroyed  by  translation  from 
one  language  to  another.  Each  language  has  its  own ; 
there  are  but  few  common  to  two  or  more  languages. 
Languages,  like  other  clothes,  vary  in  fashion.  Ches- 
terfield, who  was  more  finical  than  wise,  and  who  had 
not  merit  enough  to  achieve  high  success  as  an  author 
without  the  peculiar  advantages  of  his  hereditary  po- 
sition, discountenanced  the  use  of  proverbs,  simply  be- 
cause the  uneducated  use  them.  The  fact  that  these 
repositories  of  thought  and  wit  are  in  the  possession 
of  both  the  unlearned  and  the  learned,  renders  them 
doubly  valuable  to  one  who  would  address  a  general 
audience  in  speech  or  writing.  Such  writers  as  Cob- 
bett  and  Benjamin  Franklin  never  shrink  from  a  pop- 
ular idiom  or  proverb. 

53.  New  Idioms  and  Proverbs.  —  It  should  not  be 
forgotten  that  both  new  idioms  and  new  proverbs 
are  continually  arising.  A  strong  mind  often  throws 
out  a  new  verbal  expression  of  perhaps  an  old,  per- 
haps a  new  thought,  so  felicitous  that  it  is  caught 


MODERN  IDIOM*.  233 

up  at  once,  and  either  embalmed  as  a  proverb,  or  fre- 
quently employed  as  a  new  idiom.  The  power  of 
originating  forcible  or  beautiful  expressions  is  a  rare 
gift,  and  he  who  exercises  it  well  is  a  public  bene- 
factor. Such  writers  as  Walter  Savage  Landor  and 
Ealph  Waldo  Emerson  have  thus  enlarged  the  verbal 
machinery  of  a  people.  "  Murder  will  out "  is  a  mod- 
ern proverb.  "The  sum  of  all  villainies"  was  origi- 
nated'by  John  Wesley.  What  may  be  termed  mod- 
ern idioms  are  many  of  them  metaphors  drawn  from 
occupations,  customs,  or  modes  of  action  common  in 
these  times,  and,  in  proportion  to  their  character  and 
use,  may  be  regarded  as  degraded  or  honorable.  A 
few  instances  will  illustrate  our  meaning. 

So  critical  a  writer  as  Thomas  de  Quincey,  in  an 
article  on  "  Homer  and  the  HomeridoB,"  writes :  "  As 
if  it  were  possible  that  a  coarse,  clumsy  hulk  like  the 
ship  Argo,  at  ^ which  no  possible  Newcastle  •  collier  but 
would  have  sneezed,  could  obtain  an  everlasting  mem- 
ory in  the  starry  heavens  1" 

So  the  Kev.  F.  D.  Maurice,  an  accurate  and  vigor- 
ous writer,  uses  such  expressions  as,  "  He  has  not  a 
right  to  say  that  he  has  found  a  man  that  will  run  in 
the  same  team  with  Sir  William  Hamilton ;"  "  You  and 
I  are  not  school-men,  we  are  roughing  it  in  the  world." 

54.  How  much  should  these  Idioms  and  Proverbs  be 
employed? — The  taste  must  not  be  cultivated  to  such 
a  squeamish  ness  as  to  sacrifice  all  strength  of  thought. 
Jefferson  maintained  that  grammatical  accuracy  might 
be  surrendered  for  independence  and  vigor.  It  can 
not  be  denied  that  some  modern  grammarians  would 


234  R1IETOIU<  . 

refine  all  vigor  out  of  speech.  We  can  not  afford  to 
ostracize  all  the  idioms  and  proverbs  and  nervous  ex- 
pressions  of  our  mother-tongue,  and  we  should  not  be 
shocked  at  new  ones. 

An  anecdote  illustrating  this  subject  is  related  by 
Jefferson,  describing  the  criticisms  that  were  made  on 
his  original  draft  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
by  the  Congress  of  1776,  which  debated  three  days 
before  adopting  the  paper. 

"  I  was,"  says  Mr.  Jefferson,  "  sitting  by  Dr.  Franklin,  who  per- 
ceived that  I  was  not  insensible  to  the  mutilations.  'I  have  made 
it  a  rule,'  said  Dr  Franklin,  whenever  in  my  power,  to  avoid  be- 
coming the  draftsman  of  papers  to  be  reviewed  by  a  public  body.  J 
took  my  lesson  from  an  incident  which  I  will  relate  to  you.  When  I 
was  a  journeyman  pi  -inter,  one  of  my  companions,  an  apprentice  hat- 
ter, having  served  out  his  time,  was  about  to  open  shop  for  himself. 
His  first  concern  was  to  have  a  handsome  sign-board,  with  a  proper 
inscription.  He  composed  it  in  these  words :  '•'•John  Thompson,  hatter, 
makes  and  sells  hats  for  ready  money,"  with  a  figure  of  a  hat  subjoin- 
ed. But  he  thought  he  would  submit  it  to  his  friends  for  their  amend- 
ments. The  first  he  showed  it  to  thought  the  \vor^hatter  tautologous, 
because  followed  by  the  words  makes  hats,  which  showed  he  was  a 
hatter.  It  was  struck  out.  The  next  observed  that  the  word  makes 
might  as  well  be  omitted,  because  his  customers  would  not  care  who 
made  the  hats ;  if  good,  and  to  their  mind,  they  would  buy.  He 
struck  it  out.  A  third  said  he  thought  the  words  for  ready  money 
were  useless,  as  it  was  not  the  custom  of  the  place  to  sell  on  credit. 
Thoy  were  parted  with.  The  sign  now  stood :  "  John  Thompson  sells 
hats."  "Sell*  h:r  .is  next  friend;  "why  nobody  will  ex- 

pect you  to  give  them  away;  what  then  is  the  use  of  that  word?" 
stricken  out,  and  then  "hats"  followed,  as  there  was  one 
painted  on  the  board.     So  his  inscription  was  reduced  ultimately  to 
"  John  TJiO>iij>fon, "  with  the  figure  of  a  hat  subjoined." 

55.  Good  Taste  should  be  our  Guide. — Good  taste  and 
sound  judgment  will  be  required  to  teach  when  to  use, 
if  ever,  the  vigorous  expressions  originating  among 
the  people  which  for  a  long  time  wear  the  garb  of 


IDIOMATIC   CHANGES.  235 

vulgarity,  such  as  to  "flash  in  the  pan,"  to  "pull  up 
stakes,"  to  "fizzle  out,"  to  "cotton."  The  changes 
which  gradually  take  place  in  language  usually  orig- 
inate among  those  who  are  least  trammelled  by  law 
and  precedent. 

56.  The  indefinable  idiomatic  Character  of  every  Lan- 
guage.— Every  language  has  not  only  a  peculiar  stock 
of  idioms,  but  also  its  own  peculiar  way  of  expressing 
thought ;  wherefore  to  translate  a  forcible  and  idiomat- 
ic production  into  another  language  is  very  difficult. 
It  is  seldom  that  one  man  obtains  an  extensive  com- 
mand over  the  idioms  of  more  than  one  language. 

57.  Changes  in  Language. — As  we  have  shown,  in 
our  examination  of  words,  languages  are  constantly 
changing.     A  writer  in  the  Westminster  Review  well 
remarks  :  "  Dictionaries  contain  only  selections  from 
the  language ;  the  number  of  words  in  them  by  no 
means  rendering  them  worthy  to  be  considered  col- 
lections of  the  language.     The  English  of  grammars 
and  schools  is  but  a  chosen  portion  of  an  existing 
whole.     In  fact,  the  English  language,  as  learned  by 
foreigners,  is  by  no  means  the  language  of  England.11 

That  is  true  ;  and  still  more  forcibly  may  we  say, 
that  the  English  language,  as  learned  out  of  a  few 
elementary  books,  is  not  the  language  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  The  people  of  America  would  be 
no  better  than  dead  men  if  they  did  not  change  the 
language  which  they  use.  Whatever  is  alive  grows, 
and  throws  off  effete  matter.  A  living  language  grows 
in  idioms  and  figures,  as  well  as  in  words,  and  dis- 
cards what  is  useless.  And  yet  no  sooner  does  a  vig 


RHETORIC. 

orous  original  writer  in  America  appear,  than  some 
foreign  critics,  and  their  American  imitators,  charge 
him  with  using  "Americanisms,"  as  though  it  were 
an  offense.  He  does  use  Americanisms,  or  he  belongs 
to  the  class  of  imitators — always  a  feeble  and  con- 
temptible class.  The  English  writer  should  use  An- 
glicisms, and  the  American  writer  Americanisms,  and 
every  man  should  speak  out  what  is  in  him  in  a  free 
and  independent  manner ;  thus  showing  that  the  cli- 
max of  power  is  not  yet  reached,  and  that  those  who 
now  live  are  not  mere  echo  repeaters  of  the  past,  or 
of  each  other.  As  has  been  well  said  by  Buffon  : 

"  To  write  well  is  at  once  to  think  well,  to  feel  rightly,  and  ren- 
der properly  ;  it  is  to  have,  at  the  same  tjme,  mind,  soul,  taste.  Style 
supposes  the  reunion  and  the  exercise  of  all  the  intellectual  faculties. 
The  style  is  the  man.1' 

Such  are  the  last  words  of  Buffon's  "Maxims." 
Southey  speaks  of  the  same  subject  in  the  following 
passage,  from  one  of  his  familiar  letters : 

*'  A  man  with  a  clear  head,  a  good  heart,  and  an  honest  under- 
standing, will  always  write  well.  It  is  owing  either  to  a  muddy  head, 
un  evil  heart,  or  a  sophisticated  intellect  that  men  write  badly,  and 
sin  either  against  reason,  or  goodness,  or  sincerity.  There  may  be 
secrets  in  painting,  but  there  are  none  in  style.  When  I  have  been 
asked  the  foolish  question,  what  a  young  man  should  do  who  wishes 
to  acquire  a  good  style,  my  answer  has  been,  that  he  should  never 
think  about  it,  but  say  what  he  has  to  say  as  perspicuously  as  he  can, 
and  as  briefly  as  he  can,  and  then  the  style  will  take  care  of  itself." 

The  last  direction  is  a  little  too  sweeping  for  a  stu- 
dent. Still  it  is  true  that  a  man  can  not  write  vigor- 
ously unless  he  forgets  the  rules  of  style  in  the  fever 
or  strong  passion  of  composition.  The  time  to  re- 
member the  rules  is  when  forming  habits  of  style,  and 
when  criticising  and  amending  productions  after  they 
are  written. 


XJ-'l-'OKTS    TO    COMMAND    A    GOOD   STYLE.     237 


CHAPTER  IX. 

• 

HOW  TO  ACQUIRE  A  GOOD  STYLE. 

58.  General  Principle. — IF  a  youth  of  ordinary  in- 
telligence were  asked  how  in  his  opinion  he  might 
make  himself  an  accomplished  mechanic,  or  machin- 
ist, or  painter,  or  sculptor,  he  would  promptly  answer: 
"  By  studying  the  science,  by  receiving  instruction 
from  expert  practitioners,  by  thoroughly  examining 
the  best  specimens  of  workmanship,  and  by  continual 
careful  practice."     This  is  felt  to  be  true,  and  it  is 
only  by  such  a  process  that  any  one  can  become  a  good 
speaker  or  writer. 

Some  persons  have  a  natural  fluency  and  ease  in 
communicating  their  thoughts,  both  by  speech  and 
by  writing.  The  poets  Pope  and  Watts,  and  many 
others,  wrote  verses*while  they  were  yet,  according 
to  common  law,  to  be  regarded  as  infants.  Others, 
who  have  become  equally  eminent  afterward,  wrote 
at  first  with  great  difficulty,  and  not  till  they  had 
reached  maturer  years.  The  best  writers  and  ablest 
speakers  have  devoted  great  labor  (consciously  or  un- 
consciously) to  the  improvement  of  their  style. 

59.  Efforts  of  Gribbon  to  command  a  good  Style. — 
That  ripe  scholar  and  profound  historian,  Gibbon,  the 
author  of  the  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Em- 


238  RHETORIC. 

pire,"  details  in  his  autobiography  the  care  and  im- 
mense study  with  which  he  formed  his  style;  and 
when,  in  the  prime  of  his  life,  he  came  to  write  the 
first  volume  of  his  great  work,  he  says : 

"  The  style  of  an  author  should  be  an  image  of  his  mind,  but  the 
choice  and  command  of  language  is  the  fruit  of  exercise.  Many  ex- 
periments were  made  before  I  could  hit  the  middle  tone  between  a 
dull  chronicle  and  a  rhetorical  declamation :  three  times  did  I  com- 
pose the  first  chapter,  and  twice  the  second  and  third,  before  I  was 
tolerably  satisfied  with  their  effect.'  * 

This,  too,  was  after  he  was  already  an  author  of  writ- 
ings both  in  the  French  and  English  languages  that 
had  elicited  commendations  from  the  best  judges. 
Many  have  written  history  with  less  care,  but  how 
few  read  their  productions,  compared  with  the  readers 
of  Gibbon ! 

60.  Example  of  Prescott — Prescott's  histories  have 
been  highly  eulogized  as  models  of  good  style.  It  is 
instructive  to  learn  that  after  he  was  twenty-five  years 
old,  he  resumed  the  study  of  Khetoric  with  assiduous 
perseverance,  and  that  when  he  began  to  write  for  the 
public,  he  examined  and  re-examined  his  own  pro- 
ductions with  great  care.  Some*of  his  earlier  chap- 
ters he  re-wrote  several  times,  always  striving  to  im- 
prove them.  He  says  of  himself,  after  having  written 
several  chapters  of  his  "Ferdinand  and  Isabella," 

"  Two  or  three  faults  of  style  occur  to  me  in  looking  over  some 
former  compositions.  Too  many  adjectives;  too  many  couplets  of 
substantives  ns  well  as  adjectives,  and  perhaps  of  verbs  ;  too  set ;  sen- 
tences too  much  in  the  same  mould ;  too  formal  periphrasis  instead 

*  Miscellaneous  Works  of  Edward  Gibbon,  Esq.,  with  Memoirs 
of  his  Life  and  Writings. 


DE  QUINCE?  AND  WEBSTER.  239 

of  familiar ;  sentences  balanced  by  ands,  buts,  and  semicolons ;  too 
many  precise,  emphatic  pronouns,  as  these,  those,  which,  etc.,  iustead 
of  Jhe  particles  the,  a,  etc."* 

After  he  had  fully  formed  his  style  he  became  less 
particular.  This  is  natural.  The  time  to  be  particu- 
lar is  when  young,  and  when  habits  and  powers  of 
perception  are  both  forming  for  life. 

61.  Example  of  De  Quincey.—T)Q  Quincey,  a  master 
of  a  style  which  has  been  highly  eulogized,  even  to 
the  last  persisted  in  revising  and  even  re-writing  his 
productions  with  great  care,  before  he  would  allow 
them  to  go  before  the  public.     Such  also  is  the  prac- 
tice of  Victor  Hugo  and  many  other  eminent  writers. 

62.  Webster  as  an  Example. — The  style  of  Daniel 
Webster  was  very  terse  and  vigorous.      Generally 
simple,  but  occasionally  highly  ornamented,  and  re- 
markable for  expressing  strong  thought  and  earnest 
feeling  in  what  seems  the  best  possible  manner.     Mr. 
Webster,  in  a  conversation  with  friends  in  his  old  age, 
while  modestly  lamenting  his  own  ignorance,  as  it 
seemed  to  him,  when  he  looked  out  upon  the  bound- 
less field  of  thought,  expressed  a  fear  that  his  style 
would  degenerate,  and  added : 

"My  style  was  not  formed  without  great  care,  and  earnest  study 
of  the  best  authors.  I  have  labored  hard  upon  it,  for  I  early  felt  the 
importance  of  expression  to  thought.  I  have  re-written  sentence 
after  sentence,  and  pondered  long  upon  each  alteration.  For,  de- 
pend upon  it,  it  is  with  our  thoughts  as  with  our  persons — their  in- 
trinsic value  is  mostly  undervalued,  unless  outwardly  expressed  in 
an  attractive  garb.  Longinus  tells  us  that  the  most  sublime  passage 
to  be  found  in  any  language  is  this  in  the  Bible:  "Let  there  be 

*  Life  of  William  Hickling  Prescott,  by  George  Ticknor  (Boston, 
1864),  p.  219. 


240  RHETORIC. 

light,  and  there  was  light :'  the  greatest  effort  of  power  in  the  tersest 
and  fewest  words— the  command  and  the  record  one  exertion  of 
thought.  So  should  we  all  aim  to  express  things  in  words."*  ^ 

After  such  examples,  it  is  superfluous  to  recom- 
mend to  young  writers  great  care  and  study  in  form- 
ing their  style. 

63.  A  Study  of  good  Authors  recommended.  —  Fa- 
miliarity with  the  best  authors  is  indispensable.    Lan- 
guage and  manner  are  largely  learned  by  unconscious 
imitation.     It  is  not  well  to  waste  time  in  the  society 
of  inferior  writers,  and  listening  to  inferior  speakers. 
Always  choose  the  best  you  can  command.     Prefer 
the  decisions  of  those  whose  position  entitles  them 
to  authority,  to  your  own.     A  book  that  pleases  you 
much  may  be  very  faulty.     The  standard  English  and 
American  authors  should  be  read  thoroughly.     Eead 
much,  rather  than  many  books.     Discard  inferior  and 
too  often  illiterate  newspapers,  and  select  for  your  in- 
formation a  single  newspaper  of  high  literary  merit, 
and  spend  the  rest  of  your  time  devoted  to  reading 
with  the  best  books  you  can  command. 

64.  Translations  from  one  Language  into  Another. — 
Frequent  translation  from  another  language,  ancient 
or  modern,  into  English,  or  the  translation  of  choice 
passages  in  our  language  into  some  other  language, 
and  then  back  again  into  English,  with  a  comparison 
of  the  result  with  the  original,  is  a  good  exercise. 

65.  Frequent  Composition. — Write  as  often  as  you 
can,  and,  if  possible,  something  every  day,  at  least  ev- 

*  Harper's  New  Monthly  Magazine  (New  York),  vol.  xiii.  p.  221. 
The  sentiment  of  Longinus  is  not  quite  accurately  stated  in  the 
above. 


RATE   OF   COMPOSITION.  241 

ery  week.  Whenever  an  error  is  detected,  whether 
from  a  criticism  of  another  person  or  by  your  own  in- 
creasing familiarity  with  language  and  thought,  dis- 
card it,  and  never  repeat  it. 

66.  Slowness  and  Rapidity  of  Composition. — Perhaps 
the  most  valuable  direction  is  the  favorite  motto  of 
Erasmus, " Festina  lentz" — "HASTEN  SLOWLY!"  Write 
slowly  at  first,  studiously,  thoughtfully.     A  good  stu- 
dent should  write  at  least  one  exercise,  and  it  would 
be  well  if  he  would  write  several  exercises,  on  all  the 
diiU'rent  kinds  of  composition  required,  for  instance, 
in  Part  II.  of  this  book.     After  such  careful  exercise 
it  will  be  proper  for  him  to  write  rapidly,  and  with 
little  or  no  thought  about  rules  of  Khetoric,  and  with 
little  revision. 

67.  Discard  Imitation. — Take  no  writer  or  speaker 
for  your  model.     If  so,  you  will  be  likely  to  surpass 
him  in  his  faults,  and  fall  below  him  in  his  merits. 
Intentionally  imitate  no  one,  except  it  may  be  for  a 
rhetorical  pastime,  to  see  what  you  can  do.     In  your 
genuine  productions,  write  from  your  own  mind  and 
heart. 

Prescott  well  says  on  this  subject : 

"Indeed,  it  is  impossible  to  separate  language  from  thought  in 
that  delicate  blending  of  both  which  is  called  style  ;  at  least,  it  is  im- 
possible to  produce  the  same  effect  with  the  original  by  any  copy, 
however  literal.  We  may  imitate  the  structure  of  a  sentence,  but  the 
ideas  which  gave  it  its  peculiar  propriety  we  can  not  imitate."* 

Lessing  well  says  that  "  Every  man  should  have 
his  own  style  as  he  has  his,  own  nose." 

*  Biographical  and  Critical  Miscellanies,  by  William  H.  Prescott 
(Boston,  1861),  p.  271. 

L 


_'4'J  RHETORIC. 

68.  Opinion  of  Carlyle  on  the  Mode  of  acquiring  a 
good  Style. — Carlyle,  whose  style  is  very  labored,  but  is 
very  excellent,  according  to  Coleridge's  test — "  un- 
translatableness  in  words  of  the  same  language,  with- 
out injury  to  the  meaning" — has  given  some  excel- 
lent advice  on  rapid  writing.     He  says : 

"The  adroit,  sound-minded  man,  will  endeavor  to  spend  on  each 
business  approximately  what  of  pains  it  deserves;  and  with  a  con- 
science void  of  offense  will  dismiss  it  then  — And  yet,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  shall  not  less  but  more  strenuously  be  inculcated,  that  in  the 
way  of  writing,  no  great  thing  was  ever,  or  will  ever  be  done  with 
ease,  but  with  difficulty.  Let  ready  writers,  with  any  faculty  in  them, 
lay  this  to  heart.  Virgil  and  Tacitus,  were  they  ready  writers? 
The  whole  Prophecies  of  Isaiah  are  not  equal  in  extent  to  this  cob- 
web of  a  Review  Article.  Shakspeare,  we  may  fancy,  wrote  with 
rapidity,  but  not  till  he  had  thought  with  intensity.  No  easy  writer 
he,  or  he  had  never  been  a  Shakspeare.  Neither  was  Milton  one 
of  the  mob  of  gentlemen  that  write  with  ease  ;  he  did  not  attain 
Shakspcarc's  facility,  one  perceives,  of  even  writing  fast  after  long 
preparation,  but  struggled  while  he  wrote.  Goethe  also  tells  us  he 
4  had  nothing  sent  him  in  his  sleep,'  no  page  of  his  but  he  knew  well 
how  it  came  there.  It  is  reckoned  to  be  the  best  prose,  accordingly, 
that  has  been  written  by  any  modern."* 

69.  Further  Advice. — Such  also  is  the  opinion  of 
Brougham,  and  indeed  of  nearly  if  not  quite  all  men 
competent  to  judge  of  the  subject     AVrite  carefully 
then.     Eemember  the  example  of  such  men  as  Plato, 
whose  style  the  ancients  thought  worthy  to  be  called 
divine,  and  who,  it  is  said,  wrote  the  beginning  of  his 
"  Republic  "  many  times  in  a  great  variety  of  ways 
before  he  was  satisfied,  and  yet  the  words,  as  they  now 
stand,  seem  very  simple,  and  their  order  the  most 
natural  that  could  be  chosen.     The  best  style  is  like 

"*  Critical  and  Miscellaneous  Essays:  collected  and  rcpul 
by  Thomas  Carlyle  (Boston,  1860),  vol.  iv.  p.  242. 


EARNESTNESS    COMMENDED.  243 

the  best  glass,  so  clear  as  not  to  be  noticed — but  how 
difficult  it  must  be  to  produce  perfectly  faultless  glass! 

70.  Interlineations  to  be  Avoided. — After,  however, 
good  habits  of  composition  are  formed,  much  interlin- 
eation and  Change  of  words  ought,  if  possible,  to  bo 
avoided.  "Writers  who  discipline  themselves  the  most 
severely  at  first,  generally  arrive  at  the  habit  of  ready, 
and  correct,  and  appropriate  writing.   The  same  prin- 
ciples also  apply  to  extemporaneous  speaking. 

71.  Earnestness  Necessary. — It  should  also  be  re- 
membered that  earnestness  'is  a  prime  excellence  in  a 
speaker  or  writer.     Though  we  have  already  quoted 
Carlyle  in  this  chapter,  yet  his  advice  is  so  appropriate 
on  this  subject  that  we  present  it : 

"  Sweep  away  utterly  all  frothiness  and  falsehood  from  yonr  heart ; 
struggle  unweariedly  to  acquire  what  is  possible  for  every  God-creu- 
tetl  man,  a  free,  open,  humble  soul :  speak  not  at  a//,  in  any  it't.ve,'till 
you  have  somewhat  to  speak ;  care  not  for  the  reward  of  your  speaking, 
but  simply,  and  with  undivided  mind,  for  the  truth  of  your  speaking."*/ 

*  Carlyle's  Miscellanies,  vol.  iii.  j>.  (J7. 


244  KHJETO&IC. 


CHAPTER  X. 

STYLE  ADAPTED  TO   EXPRESS  EMOTION. 

72.  Nature  of  Emotion,  and  its  Place  in  Rhetoric. — 
WE  have  defined  Rhetoric  as  the  science  and  art  of  ex- 
pressing thought  and  emotion  by  language  in  the  best 
manner.     Emotion  is  as  essential  as  thought,  and  has 
its  own  laws,  and  its  own  modes  of  expression. 

Mental  philosophers  have  differed  in  the  terms  em- 
ployed to  describe  that  part  of  our  nature  exercised 
when  we  feel  emotions,  but  all  persons  are  conscious 
of  the  meaning  oi  such  words  as  sensibility,  appetite,  af- 
fection, and  desire  •  nor  is  it  necessary,  for  the  purposes 
of  a  Rhetoric,  that  we  should  be  minute  in  the  classi- 
fication of  the  passions. 

All  affection  is  preceded  by  some  degree  of  thought. 

73.  A  Sense  of  Duty. —  The  noblest  affections  are 
those  growing  out  of  the  idea  of  duty,  or  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  right  or  wrong  of  some  act.     No  man  can 
plead  with  peculiar  earnestness  to  produce  conviction, 
unless  he  has  not  only  a  firm  belief  himself  in  the  truth 
of  the  proposition  which  he  is  endeavoring  to  estab- 
lish, but  also  that  it  will  lead  to  just  action,  and  will 
prevent  injustice.     He  then  becomes  zealous  for  the 
right.     A  man.  may  be  zealous  for  truth  alone,  but  it 

! 


VALUE    OF  SINCERITY.  245 

communicates  zest  to  his  arguments  and  pleadings,  if 
he  believes  that  the  establishment  of  the  truth  will 
lead  to  right  action. 

74.  Can  one  plead  for  a  known  Falsehood? — A  man 
can  not  plead  for  a  known  falsehood  except  hypocrit- 
ically, or  by  producing  in  himself  a  temporary  false  be- 
lief.    The  natural  indignation  of  the  healthy  mind 
at  such  a  course  weakens  a  man,  and  if  exposed,  brings 
upon  him  censure  and  contempt     It  is  the  true  func- 
tion .of  Ehetoric  to  overcome  and  destroy  error ;  and 
though  falsehood  may  use  it  as  a  weapon,  it  is  only  by 
a  perversion  of  its  true  purpose.     A  defender  of  what 
is  believed  to  be  truth  will  endeavor  to  expose  hy- 
pocrisy or  dishonesty  in  an  opponent,  and  awaken  in 
him  shame  and  repentance,  and  in  others  toward  him 
indignation,  censure,  pity,  or  contempt.     These  last 
passions,  if  persisted  in,  and  if  there  is  no  abandon- 
ment of  the  wrong  by  its  defenders,  will  swell  into 
anger  and  hatred. 

75.  All  Emotions  right. — All  passions  are  right,  to  a/ 
certain  degree,  when  the  occasion  demands  them,  and 
the  orator  may  properly  endeavor  to  excite  any  one 
of  them. 

76.  Passiojis  of  Approval. — There  are  passions  of 
approval,  as  well  as  disapproval.     Love  in  all  its  va- 
rious forms  must  have  an  intellectual  basis.     It  pro- 
ceeds from  thought.      There  is  the  love  of  man,  as 
man  ;  the  peculiar  love  of  the  virtuous  and  noble ;  and 
n  love  of  those  who  exhibit  some  good  traits,  such  as 
generosity,  bravery,  truthfulness,  patriotism,  though 
they  may  be  deficient  in  other  good  qualities,  and  even 


246  UIIETOR1C. 

possessors  of  some  injurious  and  disagreeable  traits  of 
character.  Thus  the  affections  excited  by  the  por- 
traiture of  character,  or  the  description  of  actions,  are 
often  very  complex,  blending  approval  and  disapprov- 
al, love  and  hatred,  indignation  and  sympathy,  exe- 
cration and  pity.  The  field,  therefore,  of  the  orator 
is  broad,  and  the  language  of  passion  almost  infinite. 

77.  How  to  awaken  Approval. — To  awaken  approval, 
the  good  qualities  of  the  action  or  the  character  must 
be  dwelt  upon,  and  vividly  brought  before  the  mind. 
Men  instinctively  love  justice,  especially  when  main- 
taining itself  against  strong  temptations.  "What  seems 
to  be  disinterested  benevolence  excites  the  warmest 
approbation.  Instinctively  also  we  sympathize  with 
those  who  struggle  against  wrong,  even  though  they 
yield  at  last,  and  the  emotion  of  sympathy  may  be 
awakened  by  a  presentation  of  the  extenuating  cir- 
cumstances growing  out  of  temptation,  or  ignorance, 
or  wrong  education,  or  deception. 

Suffering  endured  by  the  innocent  or  helpless  awak- 
ens sympathy,  more  or  less  intense,  according  to  the 
degree  of  the  suffering.  If  this  is  conjoined  with 
good  positive  qualities  in  the  sufferer,  such  as  patience, 
benevolence,  disinterested  affection,  earnest  truth,  the 
liveliest  compassion  is  awakened. 

What  a  vast  field,  then,  lies  open  before  the  orator, 
who  either  describes  facts,  or  calls  upon  his  imagina- 
tion to  invent  combinations  of  characters  and  events 
surpassing,  if  possible,  any  realities  in  interest  and 
complexity. 

78.  How  to  awaken  Disapproval.  —  So  emotions  of 


VARIOUS  EMOTIONS— THE  PULPIT.  247 

disapproval  enlarge  this  field.  Pictures  of  tyranny, 
whether  exercised  by  a  sovereign  over  a  nation,  or  the 
head  of  a  family,  or  the  master  of  servants ;  covetous- 
ness,  leading  to  the  violation  of  right,  and  of  natural 
affection ;  malice,  steadily  hunting  down  an  innocent 
victim;  envy,  hating  and  slandering  and  destroying 
the  innocent  simply  because  they  prosper;  the  selfish, 
ruining  the  virtuous  for  personal  gratification,  animal 
or  mental ;  and  all  kinds  of  injustice,  excite  abhorrence, 
and  detestation  and  revenge.  All  these  chords  are 
to  be  touched,  sometimes  singly,  sometimes  many  to- 
gether, sometimes  producing  harmony,  and  sometimes 
intentional  discord,  by  the  skillful  orator. 

79.  Application  to  the  Rhetoric  of  tiie  Pulpit. — In  this 
fact  lies  the  boundless  power  of  the  oratory  of  the  pul- 
pit.    The  preacher  of  religion  deals  with  all  actual 
human  character.     It  is  his  business  to  commend  all 
forms  of  virtue,  and  to  show  the  detestable  ness  of  all 
forms  of  vice.     In  addition  to  all  that  is  human,  be 
has  also  the  supernal  emotions  of  the  Supreme  Being 
toward  man,  the  immaculate  character  of  the  Saviour 
in  his  relations  to  man,  to  portray.     His  subjects,  if 
they  lack  the  vividness  of  the  appeals  made  by  the 
lawyer,  growing  out  of  present  and  personal  circum- 
stances, and  if  they  are  not  so  direct  as  the  appeals  of 
statesmen  on  subjects  that  call  for  immediate  political 
action,  still  take  hold  of  the  highest  and  dearest  inter- 
ests of  man,  and  are  absolutely  boundless  in  their  scope 
and  variety. 

80.  Degrees  of  Emotion  considered,  with  Reference  to 
Figurative  Language. — To   awaken  gentle   emotion, 


•J48  MHXTORIC. 

pleasing  or  painful,  it  is  only  needful  to  set  before  the 
mind  perspicuously  the  characters,  facts,  or  actions,  or 
thoughts  that  naturally  produce  it.  The  fancy  may 
ornament  the  description,  and  figurative  language  is 
appropriate.  Even  a  highly  ornamented  style  may 
not  interfere  with  the  impression.  But  when  the  pas- 
sion, painful  or  pleasing,  becomes  strong,  the  language 
must  become  more  direct.  Ornaments  will  be  dis- 
carded. Figures  only  the  most  abrupt  and  condensed, 
and  perhaps  not  strictly  correct  according  to  severe 
rule,  will  be  suggested — mixed  metaphors,  if  ever,  are 
allowable  —  and  the  sentences  are  short  and  strong. 
Passion  discards  superfluities  and  niceties  of  expression. 
Strong  passion  loses  self-consciousness.  When  a  man 
has  time  to  say  that  he  is  angry,  or  is  inclined  to  think 
whether  he  is  angry  or  not,  his  passion  is  more  senti- 
mental than  real. 

81.  How  far  egotistical  References  are  proper. — Quiet 
emotion,  held  under  control  by  the  intellect,  is  more 
self-conscious,  and  often  leads  to  egotistical  expres- 
sions. Thus  Henry  Clay  said  in  an  eloquent  speech, 
properly  endeavoring  to  produce  emotion  that  should 
lead  to  action : 

"  I  have  no  desire  for  office,  not  even  the  highest.  The  most  ex- 
alted is  but  a  prison,  in  which  the  incarcerated  incumbent  daily  re- 
<vi\v>  his  cold,  heart  !e-s  visitants,  marks  his  weary  hours,  and  is  cut 
oil'  from  the  pnirtiral  enjoyment  of  all  the  blessings  of  genuine  free- 
dom. Pass  this  bill,  and  I  am  willing  to  go  home,  and  renounce  pub- 
lic service  forever." 

So  Daniel  Webster,  in  his  great  speech,  full  of  emo- 
tion himself,  awakened  unselfish  appreciation  of  merit 
anywhere,  and  produced  a  contempt  for  his  opponent. 


EG  0  TISM—PA  THOU.  249 

who  had  manifested  a  different  sentiment,  by  exclaim- 
ing : 

"  When  I  shall  be  found,  sir,  in  my  place  here  in  the  Senate  or 
elsewhere,  to  sneer  at  public  merit  because  it  happened  to  spring  up  be- 
yond the  little  limits  of  my  own  State  or  neighborhood ;  when  I  refuse, 
for  any  such  cause,  or  for  any  cause,  the  homage  due  to  American 
talent,  to  elevated  patriotism,  to  sincere  devotion  to  liberty  and  the 
country — if  I  see  extraordinary  capacity  and  virtue  in  any  son  of  the 
South — and  if,  moved  by  local  prejudice,  or  gangrened  by  State  jeal-- 
<>u>y,  I  get  up  here  to  abate  the  tithe  of  a  hair  from  his  just  character 
and  fame,  may  my  tongue  cleave  to  the  roof  of  my  mouth." 

IIow  deep  the  emotion  in  the  speech  of  the  Irish- 
man Emmett,  when  about  to  receive  his  sentence  of 
death  for  what  was  called  treason ! 

"  I  have  but  a  few  words  more  to  say.     I  am  going  to  my  cold 

and  silent  grave  ;  my  lamp  of  life  is  nearly  extinguished  ;  my  race  is 
run  ;  the  grave  opens  to  receive  me,  and  I  sink  into  its  bosom.  I  hau> 
but  one  request  to  make  at  my  departure  from  this  world  :  it  is  the 
charity  of  its  silence  !  Let  no  man  write  my  epitaph  ;  for  as  no  man 
who  knows  my  motives  dare  now  vindicate  them,  let  not  prejudice  or 
ignorance  asperse  them.  Let  them  and  me  repose  in  obscurity  and 
peace,  and  my  tomb  remain  uninscribed  until  other  times  and  other 
men  can  do  justice  to  my  character.  When  my  country  takes  her 
place  among  the  nations  of  the  earth,  then,  and  not  till  then,  let  my 
epitaph  be  written.  I  am  done." 

82.  Pathos. — What  is  commonly  called  Pathos  in  a 
speaker  or  writer  is  an  emotion  of  pity  or  deep  inter- 
est awakened  by  the  suffering  of  others,  generally  as- 
sociated with  a  respect  for  their  moral  character,  and 
perhaps  a  love  of  them  for  some  extraordinary  excel- 
lence. It  is  a  sympathetic  pain,  not  wholly  without 
pleasure.  Washington  Irving's  description  of  the 
death  of  the  wife  of  Emmett  on  account  of  her  grief, 
and  his  description  of  the  burial  of  a  mother,  are  full 
of  pathos.  Dickens's  description  of  the  death  of  Little 
L2 


250  RHETORIC. 

Nell,  in  the  "  Old  Curiosity  Shop,"  is  deeply  touching. 
Pathos  is  a  great  element  of  power  in  the  pulpit. 

It  might  be  supposed  that  inasmuch  as  the  passion 
must  exist  before  it  can  be  expressed,  and  that  if  it 
exists  it  will  naturally  clothe  itself  in  appropriate 
language,  no  rules  of  Khetoric  will  compass  it  or  help 
the  orator.  But  if  its  power  is  known,  and  the  best 
examples  of  its  expression  are  studied,  its  appropri- 
ate expression  will  become  more  natural  and  easy. 

83.  A  common  Fault.  —  The  great  fault  of  many 
writers  is  an  attempt  to  express  pathos  that  they  do 
not  feel,  and  particularly  to  overload  their  productions 
with  empty  declamation  about  passion,  instead  of  en- 
couraging the  true  feeling  where  it  should  exist,  and 
expressing  it  in  simple  language.  In  such  a  case  the 
speaker  defeats  his  own  purpose,  and  excites  only 
disgust. 


TASTE.  251 


CHAPTER  XL 

TASTE,  AND  ITS  CULTIVATION. 

84.  Definition,  and  Illustrations. — TASTE  is  the  sus- 
ceptibility to  pleasure  from  works  of  art. 

The  pleasure,  however,  which  is  awakened  by  the 
utility  of  a  work,  is  not  primarily  attributed  to  the 
Taste,  but  particularly  the  gratification  arising  from  its 
beauty,  or  from  the  qualities  which  seem  designed  pri- 
marily to  please.  A  house  may  be  strong,  durable, 
in  a  heal  thy -location,  convenient,  and  therefore  please 
our  judgment  on  account  of  its  utility ;  but  it  may  be 
at  the  same  time  ill-shapen,  of  a  disagreeable  color, 
and  so  placed,  with  reference  to  the  streets  and  the  lo- 
calities around,  as  to  offend  our  sense  of  the  fitness  of 
things.  In  such  a  case  we  say  that,  though  useful,  it 
is  built  in  poor  taste. 

A  written  production  or  speech  ought  to  please  us  if 
it  accomplishes  its  end,  and  so  it  does  in  that  respect; 
but  if,  in  addition  to  accomplishing  its  main  purpose — 
whatever  that  may  be — it  pleases  us  by  its  beauty,  ap- 
propriateness, and  conformity  to  what  we  think  is  fit- 
ting and  proper,  it  is  peculiarly  commendable. 

Nor  is  that  all:  whatever  exhibits  good  taste  is 
thereby  so  much  the  more  likely  to  receive  attention, 
and  to  exert  its  full  force,  perhaps  indeed  more  than  it 


252 

deserves  for  its  intrinsic  merit     Beauty  is  desirable  in 
itself,  for  its  own  power  to  please. 

85.  Essential  Beauty  in  Composition. — There  is  un- 
doubtedly essential  beauty  in  well-chosen  language, 
well-constructed  sentences,  well-arranged  arguments,  a 
due  admixture  of  plain  and  figurative  expressions,  a 
proper  structure  of  the  entire  composition.     A  good 
taste  recognizes  genuine  beaut}-,  and  also  is  displeased 
at  its  absence,  and  pained  at  deformity. 

86.  Is  there  any  Standard  of  Taste? — The  standard 
of  Taste  is  inflexible,  so   far  as  it  regards  intrinsic 
beauty  alone,  but  the  mind  is  influenced  by  education, 
so  that  persons  in  one  age  may  approve  what  is  dis- 
approved in  another  age.     A  nation  may  have  a  pe- 
culiar standard  of  Taste  on  some  matters,  and  to  a 
certain  extent.     French  writers,  for  instance,  usually 
break  up  their  pages  into  many  paragraphs,  and  write 
in  a  sharp,  pointed  style;  German  writers,  on  the  aver- 
age, make  longer  paragraphs.     This  is  a  mere  national 
fashion,  to  which  there  are  many  exceptions,  and  in 
both  cases  it  may  prove  temporary. 

There  are  so  many  varieties  of  beauty,  esteemed  so 
variously  by  different  persons,  and  there  are  so  many 
artificial  or  cultivated  preferences,  that  it  is  a  recog- 
nized truth  that  disputes  on  matters  of  taste  can  not 
be  absolutely  settled. 

87.  Criticism.  —  Criticism  is  the  subjecting  of  the 
writings  and  speeches  of  others  to  examination  ac- 
cording to  the  rules  of  Rhetoric  and  Taste,  and  the  as- 
signing of  reasons  for  their  approval  or  disapproval. 
It  is  a  healthful  practice  when  not  indulged  in  excess- 


253 

ively,  but  a  man  may  be  so  superfluously  critical  of 
others  as  to  intimidate  himself.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  severest  critics  are  often  feeble  performers.  It  is 
easier  to  destroy,  or  to  find  fault  with,  than  to  build. 

88.  How  Criticism  should  be  practiced. — In  the  criti- 
cism of  a  production,  we  should  first  ascertain  its  ob- 
ject, and  approve  or  disapprove  that  according  to  our 
judgment..     We  should  next  consider  its  general  drift 
of  character,  its  strength  or  feebleness,  and  whether  or 
not  it  has  attained  its  purpose.     Then  it  may  be  ex- 
amined with  reference  to  its  general  appropriateness 
of  style — of  thought,  of  language,  of  illustration,  of 
adaptation — and,  in  fact,  with  reference  to  any  actual 
or  desirable  quality.     Honest  criticisms  are  valuable, 
and  to  criticise  exhaustively  is  a  rare  art. 

89.  The  Cultivation  of  Taste.—  Taste  may  be  culti- 
vated by  familiarity  with  productions  that  have  borne 
the  test  of  examination,  and  are  generally  approved, 
by  reading  critical  writings,  by  making  criticisms,  and 
by  rigid  adherence  to  rules  in  our  own  productions. 

90.  An  Example  of  Criticism. — Would  it  not  en- 
cumber this  book  too  largely,  some  specimens  of  long 
productions  would  here  be  inserted  and  criticised,  but 
perhaps  space  may  be  saved  by  selecting  some  book 
with  which  all  are  familiar.  Take,  then,  the  Book  of 
Job  in  the  Bible,  and  examine  it  simply  as  a  literary 
document. 

What  is  its  object?  Evidently  to  present  the  life 
and  character  of  Job. 

But  why  present  his  life?  Evidently  because  it 
was  very  extraordinary,  illustrating  most  signally  the 


RU' 

fact  that  a  good  man  may  suffer  intensely  and  for  a 
long  time,  and  yet,  if  he  preserves  his  integrity,  in  the 
end  he  will  be  delivered,  and  his  integrity  rewarded. 

The  object,  then,  is  good,  the  theme  is  sublime. 

It  being  in  the  form  of  a  portraiture  of  character, 
and  several  other  personages  to  be  introduced,  with 
conversations,  a  poetical  or  dramatic  style  is  rightly 
chosen. 

Observe  the  simplicity  of  the  introduction,  the  con- 
ciseness and  rapidity  of  the  narrative  awakening  in- 
tense interest.  When  other  characters  come  to  be  in- 
troduced, observe  how  each  preserves  his  own  person- 
al style,  and  that  at  the  last,  previous  to  the  closing  up 
of  the  narrative,  the  thoughts  and  expressions  attrib- 
uted to  God  are  the  sublimest  ever  uttered,  and  in 
the  most  appropriate  phrase. 

This  criticism  is  indeed  entirely  eulogistic,  and  but 
faintly  expresses  the  opinion  of  every  competent  judge 
of  the  Book  of  Job,  simply  as  a  rhetorical  production. 

91.  Exaggeration  a  common  Fault. — A  common  fault 
in  earnest  writers  is  an  over-statement  of  a  thought, 
which  should  especially  be  avoided  in  deliberative,  so- 
ber productions.  We  think  that  Dr.  Whately  is  open 
to  this  charge  in  the  second  paragraph  of  Part  IV.  of 
his  Rhetoric,  on  Elocution.  He  says : 

"  Probably  not  a  single  instance  could  be  found  of  any  one  who  has 
attained,  by  the  study  of  any  system  of  instruction  that  has  hitherto 
appeared,  a  really  good  delivery  ;  but  there  are  many — probably  nearly 
as  many  as  have  fully  tried  the  experiment — who  have  by  this  means 
been  totally  spoiled ;  who  have  fallen  irrecoverably  into  an  affected 
style  of  sjtouting,  worse,  in  all  respects,  than  their  original  mode  of  de- 
livery." 


ILLIBERAL    CRITICISM.  _        255 

Dr.  Whatcly  was  really  too  strong  a  writer  to  re- 
sort to  such  extravagant  and  illogical  statements  as 
this. 

Criticism  is  often  unappreciative  and  superficial, 
even  when  it  assumes  to  be  profound  and  magisterial. 
A  mere  mathematician  can  not  properly  criticise  a 
poem,  nor  a  mere  book-worm  an  oration.  Some 
speakers  will  attract  large  audiences  in  spite  of  the 
violation  of  many  rules  of  elocution,  and  some  writ- 
ings will  press  themselves  into  extreme  popularity  in 
spite  of  condemnation  and  ridicule  by  the  critical  pro- 
fession. A  truly  wise  critic  will  discern  the  true  ele- 
ments of  power  in  such  cases,  and  make  his  exposure 
of  the  unnecessary  defects  and  blemishes  so  much  the 
more  instructive  and  efficient 


•JOG  RHETORIC. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

STYLE  MODIFIED  BY  TIIK   NATURE  OF  THE  PRO- 
DUCTION. 

«  92.  The  Four  Objects  of  Writers  and  Speakers.— ALL 
the  objects  of  authors  may  be  reduced  to  these  four : 
tqinstruct,  convince,  persuade,  and  amuse.  Some  pro- 
ductions may  be  designed  to  accomplish  several  of 
these  objects,  some  only  one ;  but  nearly  all  have  a 
leading  purpose,  belonging  to  one  of  these  four  classes. 
93.  Didactic  Productions. — Writings,  the  prime  ob- 
ject of  which  is  to  instruct,  may  be  called  didactic, 
such  as  text-books  describing  any  science  or  art,  law- 
books,  scientific  treatises,  cy clopa3dias,  many  books  of 
travels,  guide-books,  reports  of  investigating  commit- 
tees, deeds,  and  many  other  legal  papers.  In  didactic 
writings  perspicuity  is  particularly  essential,  and  orna- 
ment is  generally  superfluous.  Lord  Brougham  says 
on  this  subject: 

"  I  have  been  somewhat  mortified  of  late  years  at  perceiving  a  ten- 
dency tu  line  writing  and  declamation  among  our  men  of  science,  and 
I  ascribe  it,  in  some  degree,  to  the  more  general  diffusion  of  scientific 
knowledge,  which  naturally  introduces  the  more  popular  style  of  compo- 
sition. *  *  *  In  truth,  however,  that  vile  florid  style  darkens  i 
of  illustrating  ;  and  while  we  can  never  write  too  clearly  to  the  j 
we  never  can  write  too  simply,  if  our  design  be  to  write  plainly  and 
intelligibly.  *  *  *  I  have  seen  a  mathematical  discussion,  by  a  very 
able  and  learned  man,  in  two  consecutive  pages  of  which  I  reckoned 


ADAPTATION   OF  STYLE.  257 

up  above  twenty  metaphors— all  tending  to  darken  the  subject,  to  say 
nothing  of  poetical  quotations  without  mercy."* 

Disraeli  well  remarks  that  such  writings  admit  of 
but  little  ornament,  but  the  attention  may  be  relieved 
by  introducing  other  thoughts,  suggested  by  associa- 
tion. As  a  good  example  of  this,  he  refers  to  a  work 
of  Dr.  Arbuthnot  on  "  Coins,  Weights,  and  Measures," 
which  he  has  managed  to  make  interesting  as  well  as 
instructive,  by  such  remarks  as  that  "  the  polite  Au- 
gustus, the  emperor  of  the  world,  had  neither  any 
glass  in  his  windows,  nor  a  shirt  to  his  back." 

Lord  Stanley,  President  of  the  Statistical  Section 
of  the  British  Scientific  Association,  remarked :  "  You 
can  all  say  what  you  have  to  say  in  a  few  words  if 
you  will  think  it  over  beforehand.  In  addressing 
an  educated  audience,  a  good  deal  may  be  taken  for 
granted." 

94.  Logical  Productions. — When  the  object  of  the 
writer  is  to  convince,  the  rules  of  logic  must  be  ob- 
served, and  the  graces  of  style  must  be  subordinate  to 
strength  and  correctness  of  thought. 

Keports  of  committees,  pleas,  controversial  articles, 
defenses  against  charges,  and  other  purely  argumenta- 
tive productions,  belong  to  this  class. 

95.  Persuasion. — Persuasion,  which  is  designed  to 
add  to  conviction  an  impulse  toward  action,  may  make 
use  of  all  the  graces  and  arts  of  composition,  accord- 

•  ing  to  the  ability  and  judgment  of  the  author.     Ad- 

*  Dialogues  on  Instinct ;  with  an  Analytical  View  on  the  Researches 
on  Fossil  Osteology,  by  Henry,  Lord  Brougham,  F.R.S.,  etc.  (Phila- 
delphia), pp.  90,  91. 


258  RHETORK 

dresses,  sermons,  orations,  essays,  illustrations  of  all 
kinds,  and  almost  every  species  of  composition,  may 
be  devoted  to  this  purpose. 

96.  1 J  'riiu-ifjs  designed  simply  to  Amuse. — Bu  t  besides 
the  above-mentioned  objects,  many   productions  are 
designed  simply  to  amuse.     This  object,  in  its  place, 
is  as  laudable  as  any  other.     Not  only  many  humor- 
ous and  witty  productions  belong  to  this  class,  but  also 
many  essays,  descriptions,  discussions,  and  even  ad- 
dresses seek  to  interest  and  entertain,  not  by  present- 
ing new  information,  not  by  showing  the  rightfulness 
of  any  opinion  or  course  of  action,  but  simply  by  ex- 
pressing thoughts  in  such  a  way   as  to  occupy  the 
mind  and  please  the  reader  or  hearer. 

97.  A  mixed  Object. — It  should  also  be  noticed  that 
few  productions  are  purely  didactic,  or  logical,  or  hor- 
tatory, or  amusing.     In  some  all  these  purposes  are 
blended,  and  few  are  destitute  of  more  than  one  of 
them.     It  is  superfluous  to  enumerate  all  the  various 
kinds  of  productions,  but  a  few  of  the  leading  classes 
will  be  noticed. 

98.  Morality  of  Rhetoric. — One   principle   ought, 
however,  to  be  understood  by  every  writer.     It  is  not 
a  worthy  object  simply  to  produce  a  good  specimen 
of  composition  of  any  kind.     Ehetoric  is  not  an  end, 
but  a  means.     We  do  not  write  that  we  may  make 
books,  nor  speak  that  we  may  pronounce  orations,  but 
to  produce  thought  and  feeling  in  others.     We  can 
never  properly  appreciate  Rhetoric  unless  we  under- 
stand its  true  aim.     While,  however,  it  is  a  means  of 
exerting  influence   on  other  minds,  it  also  tends,  re- 


MOltALfTY    OF  RHETORIC.  259 

flexively,  to  strengthen  and  discipline  the  mind  of  one 
who  studies  it  and  obeys  its  principles.  It  is  a  legiti- 
mate and  proper  thing  for  one  mind  to  influence  an- 
other. It  was  by  rhetoric  as  well  as  by  logic,  that 
such  men  even  as  Paul,  and  Augustine,  and  Bacon, 
and  Newton,  created  so  great  an  impression  upon  other 
minds.  But  they  spoke  and  wrote,  not  to  make  good 
compositions,  but  to  influence  their  fellow-men. 


RHETORIC!. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

ADDRESSES,    LECTURES,   ORATIONS,   SERMONS. 

99.  Definition  and  Description. — SPEAKING  precedes 
writing,  and   therefore   a  consideration   of  speeches 
naturally  takes  the  first  place. 

Any  expression  of  thought  or  feeling  by  words 
may  be  called  a  speech.  Conversation  is  a  series  of 
speeches.  Any  one  who  can  converse  accurately,  in- 
telligently, and  readily,  can,  by  exercise,  speak  well 
in  public.  The  daily  practice  of  conversing  correctly 
lays  a  broad  and  sure  foundation  for  success,  both  in 
writing  and  in  public  speaking.  All  the  principles 
of  Rhetoric  may  be  more  or  less  applied  in  conversa- 
tion. 

Addresses  are  of  an  almost  infinite  variety  in 
length,  subject,  character,  and  style.  It  is  difficult  to 
lay  down  any  general  rules  for  their  construction, 
still  some  considerations  on  the  subject  may  be  of 
practical  value. 

100.  Addresses  should  have  sufficient  Material. — Ad- 
dresses are  often  deficient  in  fact  and  sentiment.     The 
most  common  fault  in  them  is  too  great  diffuseness  of 
style  and  repetition  of  thought.     The  introduction,  or 
first,  part  of  the  address,  should  be  so  constructed  as 
naturally  to  enlist  the  favorable  attention  of  the  audi- 


ADDRESSES  SHOULD   BE    WRITTEX.          261 

ence ;  and  if  any  argument  or  statement  of  opinions  or 
facts  is  necessary,  which  it  is  thought  may  be  uninterest- 
ing or  distasteful,  it  should  be  given  after  the  attention 
and  good-will  of  the  audience  are  conciliated.  The  con- 
clusion of  an  address  ought  to  be  forcible.  There  is  room 
often  for  wit,  illustration,  argument,  and  the  display  of 
almost  every  kind  of  power  of  thought'  and  feeling,  in 
this  kind  of  composition. 

101.  Should  be  Written. — It  is  an  excellent  practice 
for  young  speakers  to  write  out  their  addresses  in  full, 
and  commit  them  to  memory,  though,  after  some  prac- 
tice, it  will  be  easy  to  pronounce  the   address  alter 
having   memorized  only  the  order  of  the  thoughts, 
trusting  to  the  activity  of  the  mind  at  the  time  to 
suggest  proper  words,  and  even  additional  thoughts. 
Finally,  one  may  often  speak  efficiently  without  pre- 
viously writing  on  the  subject,  though  very  few  per- 
sons can  excel  as  speakers  who  do  not  write  much, 
and  often  write  their  speeches. 

102.  Opinion  of  Brougham  on   this  Subject.  —  The 
opinion  of  that  successful  orator,  Lord  Brougham,  on 
this  subject,  is  worthy  of  consideration.     In  his  Inau- 
gural Discourse,  when  elected  Lord  rector  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Glasgow,  delivered  to  the  students,  he  said : 

"  I  should  lay  it  down  as  a  rule,  admitting  of  no  exception,  that 
a  man  will  speak  well  in  proportion  as  he  has  written  much,  and  that, 
with  equal  talents,  he  will  be  the  finest  extempore  speaker,  when  no 
time  for  preparing  is  allowed,  who  has  prepared  himself  the  most  sed- 
ulously when  he  had  an  opportunity  of  delivering  a  premeditated 
speech.  All  the  exceptions  which  I  have  ever  heard  cited  to  this 
principle  are  apparent  ones  only ;  proving  nothing  more  than  that  some 
few  men  of  rare  genius  have  become  great  speakers  without  prepara- 
tion ;  in  no  wise  showing  that  with  preparation  they  would  not  have 


262  KHETOR1C. 

readied  a  much  higher  pitch  of  excellence.  The  admitted  superiority 
of  the  ancients  in  all  oratorical  accomplishments  is  the  best  proof  of 
my  j>osition  ;  for  their  careful  preparation  is  undeniable  ;  nay,  in  De- 
mosthenes (of  whom  Quintilian  says  that  his  style  indicates  more 
premeditation  than  Cicero's)  we  can  trace,  by  the  recurrence  of  the 
same  passage,  with  progressive  improvements,  in  different  speeches, 
how  nicely  he  polished  the  more  exquisite  parts  of  his  compositions. 
I  could  point  out  favorite  passages,  occurring  as  often  as  three  several 
time-,  with  variations  and  manifest  amendment. 

"  I  am  now  requiring  not  merely  great  preparation  while  the  speak- 
er is  learning  his  art,  but  after  he  has  accomplished  his  education. 
The  most  splendid  effort  of  the  most  mature  orator  will  be  al \\a\s 
finer  for  being  previously  elaborated  with  much  care. 

"Such  preparation  is  quite  consistent  with  the  introduction  of 
passages  prompted  by  the  occasion,  nor  will  the  transition  from  the 
one  to  the  other  be  perceptible  in  the  execution  of  an  accomplished 
master.  I  have  known  skillful  and  attentive  hearers  completely  de- 
ceived in  this  matter,  and  taking  for  extemporaneous  passages  what 

i.iu-ly  existed  in  the  manuscript,  and  were  pronounced  without 
the  variation  of  a  particle  or  pause." 

103.  Manuscript  Addresses. — These  directions  are  ap- 
plicable in  some  extent  even  to  those  who  habitually 
use  the  manuscript  when  addressing  an  audience,  for 
there  are  careless  habits  of  writing  as  well  as  of  speak- 
ing. But  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  so  many  public 
speakers  are  binding  themselves  to  this  slavish  habit. 
The  memory  should  be  trained  till  he  who  aspires  to 
accomplish  the  greatest  effect  can  deliver  easily  what 
he  has  previously  wrought  out,  and  add  efficiently 
what  the  inspiration  of  the  hour  suggests. 

\"±.  Lectures. — A  Lecture  is  generally  a  written  pro- 
duction upon  some  particular  topic  of  value,  designed 
to  be  read  before  an  audience,  though  lectures  are 
sometimes  given  from  memory. 

Lectures  may  be  very  various  in  character,  but  gen- 
erally they  should  preserve  unity.  Some  one  central 

. 


t 


ORATIOX*.  263 

topic  should  be  presented  in  a  lecture,  and  though 
others  may  be  introduced  for  illustration,  all  should 
be  subordinate  to  the  main  subject.  A  lecture  should 
be  carefully  written.  Offenses  against  grammar,  or 
style,  or  even  good  taste,  are  not  excusable  in  a  lect- 
ure. 

Generally,  a  good  lecture  will  be  found  to  consist  of 
the  following  parts :  an  introduction,  a  statement  of 
the  subject,  a  discussion  or  full  exhibition  of  the  lec- 
turer's views  on  the  subject,  and  a  conclusion. 

The  highest  kind  of  eloquence  is  not  to  be  aimed 
at  in  a  lecture,  as  its  object  is  either  to  please  or  in- 
struct, rather  than  to  persuade  or  move  to  immediate 
action. 

Inasmuch  as  the  oration  is  similar  to  the  lecture, 
much  of  *what  is  said  upon  the  latter  will  also  apply 
to  the  former. 

105.  Orations. — An  Oration  is  a  speech  of  the  very 
highest  order. 

An  oration,  to  have  its  greatest  effect,  should  not 
be  read,  but  pronounced  without  manuscript,  and  from 
a  full  heart.  Its  object  is  not  primarily  to  instruct, 
for,  aiming  at  that,  it  would  be  a  lecture  ;  nor  simply 
to  prove  a  proposition,  for  it  would  then  be  but  a  part 
of  a  discussion  ;  but  to  arouse  the  intellect,  to  fire  the 
heart,  often  to  move  to  action. 

It  is  evident  that  no  beauty,  or  elegance,  or  source 
of  power  in  expression,  is  inappropriate  in  an  oration. 
The  most  condensed  apothegm,  the  most  startling  an- 
tithesis, the  most  sparkling  wit,  the  most  forcible  com- 
parison, the  boldest  metaphors,  the  most  elaborate  pe- 


264  RHETOR  !•• 

riods,  the  greatest  variety  of  style,  are  admissible  in 
the  oration. 

Still  the  orator  must  not  forget  that  his  production 
is  designed  for  the  ear,  and  not  for  the  printed  page, 
and  he  should  never  forget  that  an  obscurity  which 
would  be  pardoned  in  an  essay  will  condemn  an  ora- 
tion, and  he  should  not  neglect  those  adaptations  of 
style  to  the  habits  and  feelings  of  hearers  which  cour- 
tesy and  good  taste  will  suggest. 

An  oration  has  the  same  parts  as  a  lecture,  except 
that  the  conclusion  is  usually  called  the  peroration. 

No  rules  can  be  given  for  the  construction  of  an 
oration  which  are  to  be  universally  followed.  The  in- 
troduction should  usually  be  pleasing,  precise,  and 
brief.  Long  introductions,  and  .the  formal  presenta- 
tion of  a  subject  after  speaking  a  few  minutes,  are  apt 
to  displease  the  hearers. 

The  main  subject  of  the  oration  may  be  entered 
upon  with  or  without  a  formal  explication ;  bu£  if  one 
is  made,  it  should  be  perspicuous. 

The  peroration  should  be  as  forcible  and  impress- 
ive as  the  orator  can  make  it.  It  need  not  be  loud 
or  excited ;  it  may  be  pathetic  and  subdued  ;  it  may  be 
simply  decided,  or  congratulatory,  or  defiant,  but  it 
should  be  earnest,  and  express  some  passion  justly  ex- 
cited in  both  speaker  and  people.  Without  this,  the 
oration  will  be  pronounced  a  failure. 

106.  Some  specimen  Orations.  —  There  are  many 
speeches  which  were  delivered  as  pleas,  or  for  the  at- 
tainment of  specific  purposes,  which  are  dignified  by 
the  name  of  orations,  on  account  of  their  great  excel- 


PREPARATION   OF   ORATIONS.  265 

lence,  such  as  the  "  Orations  of  Demosthenes,"  designed 
to  stimulate  the  Athenians  against  Philip,  the  "  Ora- 
tions of  Cicero,"  which  were  either  pleas  or  political 
speeches ;  but  the  appellation  is  properly  confined  to 
such  speeches  as  addresses  pronounced  at  the  funerals 
of  eminent  men,  the  beginning  or  completion  of  some 
great  enterprise,  the  anniversary  of  some  momentous 
event,  or  some  occasion  calculated  to  awaken  deep 
emotion  without  exciting  differences  or  hostility  of 
feelings.  The  addresses  of  Webster  and  Everett  upon 
the  anniversary  of  the  Landing  of  the  Pilgrims,  of 
Kossuth,  the  Hungarian  refugee,  upon  arriving  at 
New  York,  of  Choate  upon  the  death  of  Webster,  of 
Simpson  on  the  death  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  are  mas- 
terly specimens  of  orations. 

107.  Practical  Directions. — The  first  requisite  toward 
the  preparation  of  an  oration  is  a  clear  understanding 
of  the  theme ;  for,  though  no  subject  is  to  be  presented 
and  formally  argued,  there  must  be  in  every  oration 
one  predominant  object  of  thought  which  by  the  might 
of  the  orator  is  to  be  constructed  into  a  temple,  with 
all  the  proper  decorations  and  surroundings. 

Though  it  is  designed  to  be  spoken  and  not  read, 
yet  it  should  be  carefully  written.  It  is  undeniable 
that  many  if  not  all  of  the  most  splendid  orations, 
both  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  have  been  written 
out  previous  to  delivery.  Barely  has  a  speech  de- 
serving the  name  been  pronounced  without  having 
been  written.  Addresses  have  been  given  in  debate 
or  under  strong  excitement,  equal  in  force  and  beauty 
to  orations,  but  orations  proper  presuppose  prep;. 

M 


RHETORIC. 

ration.  And  yet  in  the  noblest  exhibitions  of  oratory 
the  speaker  is  not  confined  to  the  previous  production 
of  the  pen  or  of  his  own  mind.  Memory  is  attended 
by  reason  and  imagination.  New  views,  new  images, 
new  feelings  may  arise  and  demand  expression,  and 
spontaneously  clothe  themselves  in  the  most  appropri- 
ate garb,  and  thus  the  orator  combines  past  and  pres- 
ent energy  to  produce  the  result. 

108.  Pleas. — Pleas  are  a  specific  kind  of  addresses 
varying  with  the  almost  infinite  diversity  of  subjects 
upon  which  lawyers  are  called  to  address,  sometimes 
the  judge,  sometimes  a  jury,  and  sometimes  both  to 
gether.     Ordinary  pleas,  designed  to  produce  only  a 
temporary  effect,  aim  simply  at  perspicuity  and  force. 
Pleas  made  upon  very  exciting  occasions,  such  as  crimi- 
nal trials  which  awaken  great  attention,  or  legal  dis- 
putes in  which  great  interests  are  at  stake,  partake 
more  of  the  nature  of  an  oration,  modified  indeed,  but 
admitting  a  variety  of  style  and  the  highest  eloquence. 

109.  Sermons. — Sermons  are  often  orations,  though 
sometimes  lectures,  and  sometimes  simply  addresses. 
They   admit  every  conceivable  variety  of  style,  de- 
pending upon  circumstances.     Some  are  didactic  and 
exegetical ;  some  are  controversial ;  some  are  designed 
to  awaken  a  particular  passion,  and  some  are  genuine 
orations.     The  particular  characteristic  of  a  sermon  is, 
that  it  purports  to  be  a  sincere  effort  to  induce  the 
audience  to  obey  the  will  of  the  Supreme  Being,  and 
should,  therefore,  always  be  accompanied  by  a  seri- 
ousness associated  with  the  object.     The  same  fact 
requires  that  an  appearance  of  art,  or  attempt  to  dis- 


SERMONS.  267 

play  ability,  should  not  be  exposed,  and  whatever 
tends  to  withdraw  attention  from  the  subject  to  the 
speaker  should  be  especially  avoided.  Many  of  the 
best  specimens  of  the  oration  are  sermons,  such  as 
some  of  the  discourses  of  Massillon,  Robert  Hall, 
Edward  Irving,  Melvill,  Mason,  Olin,  Beecher,  and 
others. 

Farther  views  upon  this  subject  will  be  presented 
when  we  come  to  treat  of  Invention,  and  Practical 
Rhetoric  and  Elocution. 


268  RHETORIC. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

EPISTOLARY  COMPOSITION,   ESSAYS,   ETC.,    ETC. 

1  110.  Letters. — VERY  few  are  the  persons  who  do 
not  more  or  less  frequently  attempt  to  express  their 
thoughts  and  feelings  to  others  by  writing  letters.  It 
is  always  regarded  as  a  direct  proof  of  ignorance  when 
an  epistle  violates  the  rules  of  grammar,  or  is  glaringly 
inconsistent  with  the  primary  principles  of  rhetoric. 

A  letter  should,  of  course,  be  properly  dated,  ad- 
dressed, signed,  and  superscribed,  and  the  language 
should  be  correct  Perspicuity  is  essential,  for  ambi- 
guity is  vexatious  to  the  recipient,  and  unpardonable 
in  the  writer.  No  person  should  presume  to  write  a 
letter  who  has  not  learned  to  write  his  name  and  oth- 
er words  so  that  other  persons  can  read  them. 

111.  Familiar  Letters. — Letters  of  friendship  may, 
of  course,  be  written  in  a  careless,  confidential  style, 
partaking  much  of  the  character  of  the  conversation 
common  between  the  parties ;  but  every  scholar  should 
regard  it  as  unbecoming  to  write  what,  so  far  as  the 
form  of  the  composition  is  concerned,  he  would  be 
unwilling  to  see  printed  for  the  public  eye. 

112.  Letters  for  the  Public. — Letters  are  sometimes 
written  for  the  public,  and  made  the  vehicle  of  care- 
ful, methodical   thought.     Such   letters,  though  pre- 


STYLE   OF  LETTERS.  269 

serving  the  form  of  a  personal  address,  and  often  inter- 
spersed with  merely  personal  matters,  are  much  like 
essays,  and  may  be  written  in  the  most  elevated  and 
labored  style.  Such  are  many  of  the  letters  of  John 
Foster.  Many  biographies  abound  in  the  letters  of 
the  persons  whose  characters  are  described.  The  let- 
ters of  George  Washington  are  written  in  a  noble 
classical  style,  almost  invariably  correct  in  expression, 
and  always  dignified  and  perspicuous,  though  often 
written  in  great  haste. 

Correspondents  of  scientific  and  other  societies  often 
embody  their  views  upon  some  subject  in  the  form  of 
a  letter  designed  to  be  read  to  the  whole  society,  or 
printed  in  their  transactions.  Such  writings,  though 
carefully  preserving  the  form  of  letters  in  the  ad- 
dress and  signature,  may  be  written  in  the  style  of 
didactic  writings,  and  yet  advantage  may  be  taken  of 
the  letter  form  to  express  more  personal  feeling  than 
would  be  proper  in  an  essay. 

Correspondents  of  newspapers  often  employ  the 
form  of  letter-writing  in  this  way.  The  bulletins  of 
military  and  naval  officers  are  generally  in  the  form  of 
letters.  Happy  is  the  commander  who,  in  addition  to 
efficiency  and  success,  can  command  a  brief  and  vig- 
orous style.  Napoleon  was  as  successful  with  the  pen 
as  with  the  sword.  The  reports  of  Washington  were 
such  as  might  have  been  expected  from  his  dignified, 
noble  character. 

113.  Specimen  Letter  from  Writings  of  Washington. 
—  The  following  private  letter  from  Washington  to 
Franklin  may  not  be  out  of  place  as  a  specimen.  Dr. 


270  RHETORIC. 

Franklin,  in  the  84th  year  of  his  age,  wrote  a  letter 
to  President  Washington,  in  which  he  spoke  of  his 
own  excruciating  bodily  pain,  but  congratulated  the 
President  on  the  success  of  his  administration,  and 
averred  that  in  whatever  state  he  might  be  in  a  future 
life,  he  should  retain  esteem  and  affection  for  him,  to 
which  Washington  tkus  replied  : 

••New  York,  23  September,  17S9. 

"  DEAR  SIR, — The  affectionate  congratulations  on  the  recovery  of 
my  health,  and  the  warm  expressions  of  personal  friendship  which 
were  contained  in  your  letter  of  the  10th  instant,  claim  my  gratitude. 
And  the  consideration  that  it  was  written  when  you  were  afflicted  with 
a  painful  malady,  greatly  increases  my  obligation  for  it. 

' '  Would  to  God,  my  dear  sir,  that  I  could  congratulate  you  upon 
the  removal  of  that  excruciating  pain  under  which  you  labor,  and  that 
your  existence  might  close  with  as  much  ease  to  yourself,  as  its  con- 
tinuance has  been  beneficial  to  our  country  and  useful  to  mankind; 
or  if  the  united  wishes  of  a  free  people,  joined  with  the  earnest  prayers 
of  every  friend  to  science  and  humanity,  could  relieve  the  body  from 
pains  or  infirmities,  that  you  could  claim  an  exemption  on  this  score. 
But  this  can  not  be,  and  you  have  within  yourself  the  only  resource  to 
which  we  ran  confidently  apply  for  relief,  a  philosophic  mind. 

"  If  to  be  venerated  for  benevolence,  if  to  be  admired  for  talents, 
if  to  be  esteemed  for  patriotism,  if  to  be  beloved  for  philanthropy,  can 
gratify  the  human  mind,  yon  must  have  the  pleasing  consolation  to 
know  that  you  have  not  lived  in  vain.  And  I  flatter  myself  that  it 
will  not  be  ranked  among  the  least  grateful  occurrences  of  your  life  to 
be  assured,  that,  so  long  as  I  retain  my  memory,  you  will  be  recol- 
lected with  respect,  veneration,  and  affection  by 

"  Your  sincere  friend,  GEORGE  WASHINGTON. " 

ESSAYS,  TREATISES,  DISSERTATIONS,  REVIEWS. 

Didactic  productions  not  designed  to  be  pronounced 
by  their  authors,  but  written  for  the  press,  claim  at- 
tention. Under  this  head  must  be  classed  Essays, 
Tracts,  Dissertations,  and  kindred  productions,  vari- 
ously styled  views,  thoughts,  etc. 


CH  A  HA  <  •  TER    OF   ESS  A  TS.  271 

114.  Essays. — An  Essay  is  a  production  attempting 
to  present  any  subject  whatever  to  the  reader.  Short 
productions,  like  many  articles  in  newspapers,  and 
like  the  papers  in  Addison's  "  Spectator,"  the  "  Atlan- 
tic Monthly,"  and  similar  periodicals,  are  essays. 
Sometimes  the  name  is  given  to  a  long  and  labored 
writing.  Thus  Locke  modestly  styled  his  immortal 
work  an  "  Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding," 
though  in  fact  it  is  a  treatise. 

As  essays  vary  in  length,  subject,  and  pretension, 
few  general  rules  on  their  style  can  be  given.  Some 
of  the  best  specimens  of  English  writing  are  in  this 
form.  It  was  indeed  by  this  kind  of  writing  that  a 
taste  for  reading  was  first  cultivated  among  the  peo- 
ple, and  some  of  the  earliest  essays,  such  as  those 
found  in  the  "  Spectator,"  "  Kambler,"  etc.,  are  justly 
ranked  among  the  English  classics.  In  them  largely 
our  language  was  reduced  to  grammatical  correctness 
and  rhetorical  force ;  and  though  they  are  often  now 
over-estimated,  and  perhaps  surpassed,  yet  it  should 
not  be  forgotten  that  many  of  the  ablest  productions 
are  in  this  form.  Editorials  in  our  best  periodicals 
are  often  able  essays. 

An  essay  should  generally  have  one  leading  sub- 
ject, one  prominent  thought  or  fact  to  state,  or  error 
to  controvert,  or  end  to  accomplish.  The  style  should 
correspond  with  its  purpose,  and  may  vary  from  the 
simple  and  colloquial  to  the  most  condensed,  abstruse, 
and  profound.  It  should  not  be  so  direct  as  in  the  ad- 
dress, and  usually  the  third  person  should  be  employed 
in  preference  to  the  first  to  denote  the  author ;  or  if 


272  RHETORIC. 

the  first  person  is  preferred,  the  plural  number  is  pref- 
erable to  the  singular.  In  this  way  the  character  of 
impersonality  is  preserved  in  the  author. 

115.  Reviews. — Reviews  are  a  species  of  essays  that 
have  sprung  up  in  modern  times.  The  first  publication 
formally  devoted  to  this  kind  of  writing  was  the  "  Ed- 
inburgh Review,"  established  in  1817.  This  species  of 
writing  seems  to  have  grown  out  of  a  desire  to  exer- 
cise a  kind  of  literary  and  moral  censorship  over  the 
press,  by  which  to  stamp  as  current  works  truly  val- 
uable, and  thus  to  introduce  them  to  public  favor,  and 
to  condemn  to  oblivion  the  unworthy.  Also  they  aim 
often  to  give  an  abstract  of  the  most  valuable  thoughts 
of  the  various  works  published,  and  to  present  other 
opinions  upon  the  same  subjects.  This  censorship  has 
often  exerted  a  great  power.  Some  valuable  works 
have  been  for  a  long  time  doomed  to  neglect,  and  in- 
ferior works  puffed  into  undeserved  notoriety  by  re- 
views. The  young  poet  Keats  was  so  affected  by  the 
condemnation  of  his  writings  by  the  "  Edinburgh  Re- 
view "  that  it  is  said  his  death  was  hastened,  while  on 
the  other  hand  Byron,  when  receiving  like  treatment, 
retorted  so  violently  in  his  "  English  Bards  and  Scotch 
Reviewers,"  as  to  humble  the  reviews  and  permanent- 
ly weaken  their  power. 

Of  late,  as  the  public  have  become  more  intelligent, 
and  the  number  of  independent  readers  has  increased, 
many  a  work  condemned  by  reviews  has  achieved 
great  popularity,  and  many  works  highly  commended 
have  soon  sunk  to  merited  oblivion.  Still  much  of 
the  best  writing  in  the  language  is  in  the  form  of  re- 
views. 


THE  A  TISES  —  TRAC  TS.  273 

116.  Dissertations  and  Treatises. — Dissertations  are 
essays  on  specific  subjects.     Treatises  are  more  thor- 
ough, methodical,  and  extended.     More  elevated  than 
the  essay,  they  aspire  to  more  than  a  temporary  influ- 
ence.   Such  works  as  "  Bacon's  Organon  "  and  "  Ed- 
wards on  the  Will "  are  treatises. 

The  style  of  such  a  work  should  be  dignified  and 
strong.  Allusions  to  temporary  phases  of  fashion, 
and  even  to  current  history,  should  be  sparing.  The 
writer  should  divest  himself  of  the  prejudices  of  his 
time  and  place,  and  look  into  the  common  heart  of 
human  nature,  and  present  the  permanent  instead  of 
the  transitory,  the  pure  metal  without  dross. 

117.  Tracts. — A  Tract  is  literally  a  writing  drawn 
out,  or  thoroughly  presenting  the  subject  considered, 
like  Milton's  "  Tractate  on  Education  ;"  though  strange- 
ly enough,  in  modern  times,  the  term  is  chiefly  used 
to  denote  a  brief  presentation  of  a  subject  on  one  or 
two  pages,  usually  printed  alone  on  a  single  sheet  of 
paper.     Neatness  and   completeness,  and  point  and 
power,  should  be  aimed  at  in  such  productions. 

M2 


RHETORIC. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

HISTORICAL     WRITING. 

118.  Anecdotes.  —  THE  simplest  form  of  history  is 
the  Anecdote.  An  anecdote  meant  originally  a  fact 
not  published.  The  incident  was  called  by  that  name 
because  it  was  considered  either  too  trivial  to  become 
a  part  of  dignified  history,  or  of  such  a  character  that 
it  ought  not  to  be  given  to  the  public  eye.  The  word  is 
now  used  to  denote  any  particular  fact  or  incident  that 
may  be  detached  from  its  connection  with  other  facts, 
and  related  either  to  illustrate  a  principle  or  to  amuse 
the  hearer. 

An  anecdote  should  always  have  a  point,  or  ex- 
press a  definite  and  singular  fact,  and  should  be  so 
related  as  to  bring  out  that  central  thought  clearly. 
All  extraneous  matter  and  uninteresting  incident 
should  be  omitted.  If  an  anecdote  claims  to  be  true, 
it  should  have  that  character,  otherwise  it  becomes  a 
mere  supposition  or  fancy  sketch.  Many  so-called 
anecdotes  are  simply  founded  on  truth. 

It  is  a  happy  art  to  relate  an  anecdote  well.  The 
most  dignified  addresses  will  admit  them,  if  they  are 
appropriate  and  well  told. 

*'  A  story  should,  to  please,  at  least  seem  true, 
Be  apropos,  well  told,  concise,  and  new. " 


MEMOIRS  AND  BIOGRAPHIES.  275 

A  statement  of  a  fact  for  illustration  may  be  term- 
ed an  anecdote.  Thus  Warburton,  in  a  "  Discourse 
against  Free-thinkers,"  after  attempting  to  show  by 
argument  that  all  their  efforts  had  inured  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  Christianity,  concludes  with  the  following 
anecdote : 

"  Herodotus  tells  us,  that  at  what  time  their  deity,  the  Nile,  re- 
turns into  his  ancient  channel,  and  the  husbandman  hath  committed 
the  good  seed  to  the  opening  glebe,  it  was  their  custom  to  turn  in 
whole  droves  of  swine  to  range,  to  trample,  root  up,  and  destroy  at 
'pleasure.  And  now  nothing  appeared  but  desolation,  while  the  ravages 
of  the  obscene  herd  had  killed  every  cheerful  hope  of  futmv  plenty  ; 
when,  on  the  issue,  it  was  seen  that  all  their  perversity  and  dirt  v  tn-to 
had  effected  was  only  this  :  that  the  seed  took  better  root,  incorporated 
more  kindly  with  the  soil,  and  at  length  shot  up  in  a  more  luxuriant 
and  abundant  harvest." 

119.  Memoirs  and  Biographies.  —  Memoirs  are  a 
branch  of  literature  extensively  cultivated  in  modern 
times.  They  are  informal  and  incomplete,  and  some- 
times unmethodical  recollections  and  descriptions  of 
remarkable  persons  or  events.  The  order  and  dignity 
of  regular  biography  or  narrative  are  not  required. 

Biographies  are  more  thorough  and  minute  than 
Memoirs,  being  descriptions  of  the  lives  and  charac- 
ters of  individuals. 

To  write  the  life  of  a  remarkable  person  well  is  a 
very  difficult  matter,  and  requires  a  high  order  of  tal- 
ent. The  biographer  must  be  able  to  appreciate  the 
actions  and  motives  of  the  person  whose  life  he  is  de- 
lineating, besides  having  the  power  to  describe  cor- 
rectly and  vividly,  omitting  all  that  is  unnecessary  or 
uninstructive.  Boswell's  "Life  of  Dr.  Samuel  John- 
son "  has  been  extravagantly  commended  by  Macau- 


276  RHETUR1''. 

lay,  who  expressed  himself  on  this  subject  as  usual  by 
an  antithesis:  "Many  of  the  greatest  men  that  ever 
lived  have  written  biographies.  Bos  well  was  one  of 
the  smallest  men  that  ever  lived,  and  he  has  beaten 
them  all."  His  sentiment  has  been  repeated  by  many 
others,  who  find  it  convenient  to  echo  what  a  great 
writer  has  carelessly  expressed.  His  work  partakes 
more  of  the  character  of  memoirs  than  of  a  genuine 
biography,  and  is  valuable  for  the  simplicity  and  free- 
ness  with  which  it  describes  the  very  words  and  actions 
of  hs  hero.  Sparks's  "Life  of  Washington  "  would 
have  been  more  valuable,  voluminous  as  it  is,  had  it 
been  more  free  and  unrestrained.  The  lives  of  vari- 
ous Americans  written  by  James  Parton,  Esq.,  are  ex- 
cellent specimens  of  this  kind  of  writing. 

120.  Autobiographies.  —  Autobiographies  are  Me- 
moirs, or  more  complete  Biographies,  written  by  the 
individuals  themselves  whose  lives  are  portrayed. 
These  are  apt  to  be  partial,  prolix,  and  unfair.     Still 
they  may  abound   in   gossip,  and   they  may   reveal 
secrets  of  action  and  of  character  that  no  second  per- 
son could  learn.     Therefore  some  of  the  best  speci- 
mens of  this  kind  of  writing  have  been  very  popular. 
Good  taste  will  be  required  to  avoid  offense  by  an 
exhibition  of  undue  self-esteem. 

121.  Jv  <d  Diaries. — Journals  or  Diaries  are 
a  species  of  historical  composition,  usually  not  written 
for  the  public,  and  yet  which  in  some  instances  have 
been  published,  and  have  shed  great  light  upon  con- 
temporaneous history.     The  skill  and  power  of  a  cul- 
tivated man  will  be  seen  in  his  daily  notes  and  mem- 


TRAVELS— HISTORY.  277 

oranda.  Aside  from  strict  accuracy  in  dates  and  facts, 
which  morality  would  require,  the  style  should  be 
correct,  inasmuch  as  the  habits  both  of  speaking  and 
writing,  indulged  in  private,  will  be  sure  to  exhibit 
themselves  in  public. 

122.  Books  of  Travel. — Books  of  Travel  are  among 
the  most  abundant  of  what  may  be  ranked   as  the 
fugitive  productions  of  the  day.     The  very  best  of 
them  are  likely  soon  to  lose  their  popularity  and  be 
superseded  by  others.     The  most  of  them  are  offen- 
sively minute,  describing  objects  which  need  to   be 
actually  seen  in  order  to  be  appreciated,  or  entering 
disagreeably   into  matters  of  no  interest  to  readers. 
Some  of  them,  however,  hold  a  high  rank  among  in- 
structive books,  as  "  Eothen,"  by  Alexander  W.  King- 
lake,  "  Travels  in  Greece,"  by  John  L.  Stephens,  and 
several  ones  by  Bayard  Taylor,  Esq.      Kev.  David 
Livingstone's  "  Researches  in  Africa"  is  a  model  work. 

Skill  in  this  kind  of  writing  is  exhibited  nearly  as 
much  by  omitting  the  irrelevant,  as  by  presenting  what 
is  really  instructive  or  amusing. 

123.  History  Proper. — History  proper  demands  the 
highest  talent.     Mere  annals,  or  condensed  chronolog- 
ical statements  of  events,  require  a  happy  discrimina- 
tion, by  which  unimportant  details  shall  be  omitted, 
and  the  right  degree  of  prominence  be  given  to  im- 
portant events.     And  when  the  historian  seeks  to  rise 
above   a  mere  chronological  recital  of  facts,  and  to 
present  the  character  and  actions  of  any  age  vividly 
and  correctly  before  the  reader,  there  is  no  limit  to 
the  ability  that  can  be  displayed.     A  true  historian 


•2. 7  tf  ii  11 ET  URIC. 

must  not  only  describe  the  surface  of  events,  but  so 
arrange  them  as  to  show  their  connection  and  depend- 
ence, and  must  give  their  causes  and  'effects.  He 
should  be  a  thoroughly  educated  man,  familiar  with 
political  economy,  law,  legislative  processes,  the  mili- 
tary science  and  art,  the  various  arts  and  employments 
of  men,  philosophy,  and  religion.  He  should  be  free 
from  prejudice,  and  do  justice  to  the  actions  and  mo- 
tives of  men  whom  he  does  not  approve.  He  must 
distinguish  between  the  false  and  the  true,  and  not  pre- 
sent conjectures  as  facts.  Withal  he  must  so  illustrate 
and  enliven  his  narrative  as  to  command  the  attention 
of  his  readers. 

For  the  want  of  proper  qualifications,  the  most  of 
histories  are  nearly  worthless,  and  many  are  mani- 
festly false.  The  best  productions  of  this  class  have 
been  written  by  men  who  have  toiled  with  great  pa- 
tience and  assiduity  to  qualify  themselves  for  the  work, 
and  have  taken  especial  pains  to  perfect  their  style. 
Among  them  may  be  mentioned  such  authors  as  Tlm- 
cydides,  Livy,  and  Tacitus,  Gibbon,  Arnold,  Grote, 
Macaulay,  Bancroft,  Prescott,  and  Motley.  Though 
widely  various,  the  style  of  each  of  these  may  be  re- 
garded in  many  respects  as  a  model. 

12-i.  Pragmatic  History. — Sometimes  a  historian  has 
a  great  moral  end  in  view,  stating  both  the  causes  and 
consequences  of  events ;  as,  for  instance,  to  show  that 
luxury  saps  the  vitals  of  a  nation.  Great  care  should 
be  taken  in  such  writings,  lest  that  some  false  opinion 
or  partisan  purpose  should  warp  the  judgment  of  the 
writer. 


DIALOGUES.  279 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

REPRESENTATIVE  WRITING,  AND   FICTION. 

125.  Definition. — IN  Representative  Writing  persons 
are  represented  as  actually  speaking,  and  generally  ad- 
dressing each  other.     Under  this  title  come  soliloquies, 
dialogues,  and  the  literature  of  the  theatre. 

126.  Dialogues. — Many  of  the  finest  literary  pro- 
ductions in  the  world  are  in  the  form  of  dialogues. 
Among  these  are  the  writings  of  Plato,  and  some  of 
the  philosophical  writings  of  Cicero.     In  dialogues  de- 
signed to  be  read,  and  not  recited  or  spoken,  a  style 
less  colloquial,  and  in  some  passages  entirely  free  from 
a  colloquial  character  may  be  employed.     The  person- 
ages represented  as  speaking  may  be  real  or  fictitious. 
If  historical  characters  are  selected,  they  should  not 
be  misrepresented,  and  the  style  of  thought  and  ex- 
pression should  correspond  with  their  known  ability 
and  habits.     Socrates  or  Paul  should  not  be  made  to 
speak  as  a  clown,  nor  Nero  as  a  Christian,  nor  Cleo- 
patra as  a  diligent  and  prudent  matron.     It  is  a  haz- 
ardous experiment  to  represent  well-known  and  mark- 
ed historical  personages  as  conversing  with  each  other, 
and  of  the  many  who  have  attempted  it,  few  have 
given  to  the  world  productions  that  have  achieved 
popularity.     If  the  characters  are  represented  as  liv- 


280  RHETORIC. 

ing  in  this  world,  of  course  anachronisms  must  be 
avoided,  as  only  those  who  lived  at  the  same  time  and 
place  could  be  supposed  to  hold  conversation  with 
each  other.  In  order  to  bring  together  marked  char- 
acters of  different  nations  and  ages,  the  scene  is  often 
laid  in  another  world,  as  in  Lord  Littleton's  "  Dia- 
logues of  the  Dead,"  an  excellent  book  written  in  the" 
eighteenth  century.  Some  of  the  dialogues  were  be- 
tween contemporaries  who  had  lately  died,  and  others 
between  remarkable  personages  of  past  times,  without 
regard  to  their  nationality,  language,  or  age,  and  yet 
each  spoke  on  subjects  in  which  he  might  reasonably 
be  presumed  to  be  interested,  and  in  a  style  correspond- 
ing with  his  known  character.  A  far  superior  work 
of  the  kind  is  "  Imaginary  Conversatiojns  of  Literary 
Men  and  Statesmen^  by  Walter  Savage  Landor,  Esq. 
In  these,  noted  men  speak  of  the  subjects  in  which 
they  were  known  to  be  adepts,  and  the  dialogues  are 
made  the  vehicle  of  much  valuable  thought  and  per- 
sonal opinion  of  the  author. 

127.  Dialogues  intended  to  be  Recited. — Dialogues  in- 
tended to  be  committed  to  memory  and  recited,  should 
be  more  spirited,  and  must  not  offend  a  sense  of  pro- 
priety by  being  unnatural  or  improbable.  To  this 
class  belong  all  plays,  comedies,  and  tragedies,  consti- 
tuting the  literature  of  the  theatre.  From  the  earliest 
times,  and  in  nearly  all  languages,  this  kind  of  writing 
has  been  common,  and  it  includes  much  of  the  ripest 
thought  and  best  literature  in  the  world.  To  the  dram- 
atists of  Greece  and  Eome  we  are  indebted  for  the 
most  vivid  portraitures  which  we  have  of  the  ordinary 


281 

life  and  thoughts  of  the  people;  and  though  un- 
doubtedly the  fictitious  representations  and  conversa- 
tions are  exaggerated,  still  it  is  easy  for  the  critic  to 
make  due  allowance  for  this,  and  thus  obtain  much 
valuable  information  that  otherwise  would  have  been 
lost.  In  our  own  language  we  need  but  mention  the 
many-gided  Shakspeare,  whose  vast  range  of  obser- 
vation and  thought,  and  keen  analysis  of  passion,  and 
portraiture  of  nearly  all  possible  experience,  seem  al- 
most superhuman. 

128.  Value  of  this  Kind  of  Writings.  —  Whatever 
may  be  thought  of  the  moral  effects  of  theatrical  rep- 
resentations, that  literature  of  this  kind  will  always 
be  written,  and  that  much  of  it  will  be  recited,  can  not 
be  doubted.     Even  in  the  simplest  forms  of  dialogues 
for  school  exhibitions  much  skill  can  be  shown.    When 
the  speakers  are  fictitious,  each  character  should  be 
consistent  with  itself.     Sentiments  or  passions  incon- 
gruous with  each  other,  or  never  found  together  in  real 
life,  should  not  be  expressed  by  the  same  person. 

There  is  room  in  such  productions  for  the  greatest 
possible  variety  of  style,  and  for  the  widest  and  no- 
blest range  of  thought.  Care,  however,  should  be  ex- 
ercised not  to  make  the  production  tedious  by  too  long 
speeches,  and  a  stilted,  artificial,  and  bombastic  style 
should  especially  be  avoided.  The  poet  may  draw 
from  his  own  fancy  ;  the  scholar  from  his  library ;  but 
the  proper  study  of  the  dramatic  writer,  whether  in 
verse  or  in  prose,  is  man — man,  as  he  exists  in  society. 

129.  Soliloquies. — Soliloquies  are  the  vocal  expres- 
sion of  thought  and  passion  by  persons  alone,  supposed 


282 

to  be  speaking  aloud,  unaware  of  a  listener,  and  per- 
haps unconscious  of  speaking.  These  can  not  with 
propriety  be  introduced  except  either  in  dramatic-  or 
fictitious  writings.  None  who  read  the  English  lan- 
guage can  long  remain  unacquainted  with  some  of  the 
most  noted  soliloquies  of  Shakspeare,  such  as  those  of 
Henry  IV.,  Cardinal  Wolsey,  and  Hamlet's,  on  Death. 
Almost  equally  well  known  is  that  on  Immortality, 
put  into  the  mouth  of  Cato  by  Addison,  commencing  : 

"It  must  be  so.     Plato,  thou  reasonest  well— 

he  nee  this  pleasing  hope,  this  fond  desire, 
This  longing  after  immortality  ?'' 

130.  The  Three  Unities. — It  has  passed  into  a  canon 
of  Rhetoric,  that  what  are  called  the  three  Unities 
should,  at  least  in   spirit,  be  preserved  in  dramatic 
writings.     These  are  the  unity  of  subject,  the  unity 
of  time,  and  the  unity  of  place.     One   main  leading 
subject  should  be   presented ;  the  time  supposed  to 
elapse  in  the  course   of  the  representation  should 
neither  be  so  long  or  short  as  to  offend  a  sense  of 
propriety,  and  the  place  should  correspond  with  what 
could  easily  be  conceived  to  be  fact. 

131.  Dialogues  in  History. — In  history,  dialogues  be- 
tween the  important  personages  whose  lives  and  ac- 
tions are  portrayed  are  often  introduced,  and  thus  the 
narrative  is  greatly  enlivened.     Some  historians  have 
invented  these  dialogues,  as  well  as  addresses  supposed 
to  have  been  pronounced,  always  endeavoring  to  pre- 
serve  a  verisimilitude  in  such  compositions,  but  in 
modern  times  it  is  considered  improper  thus  to  mingle 
history   and  fiction,  and  few  writers    introduce   any 


USES    OF  FICTION.  283 

dialogues  or  addresses,  except  such  as  were  actually 
uttered. 

132.  Fiction.  —  Works  of  fiction  have  a  peculiar 
character.  The  larger  portion  of  the.  books  now  pub- 
lished is  fictitious,  and  the  larger  part  of  the  reading 
is  of  fiction.  The  word  scarcely  needs  explanation. 
Works  in  the  form  of  narration,  of  memoirs,  biogra- 
phies, travels  or  histories,  not  presenting  facts,  but  the 
imaginations  of  the  authors,  are  Fiction.  From  the 
earliest  times  such  productions  have  been  common. 

Historical  fictions  are  those  in  which  characters  that 
really  lived  are  introduced  as  acting  and  speaking,  and 
the  author  preserves  j  ust  so  much  fidelity  to  fact  as  he 
pleases.  Many  of  the  novels  of  Waiter  Scott  belong 
to  this  class. 

Similar  are  the  works  of  fiction  which  in  the  form 
of  fancied  travels  or  correspondence,  describe  places, 
customs,  and  religions,  with  more  or  less  fidelity. 
"  The  Travels  of  Anacharsis  "  describe  the  ancient 
world  and  its  customs.  Bulwer's  "  Last  days  of  Pom- 
peii "  professes  to  describe  the  customs  of  that  city,  and 
the  volcanic  eruption  by  which  it  was  overwhelmed. 

No  wise  man  will  depend  upon  works  of  fiction  for 
his  historical  information.  He  will  rather  guard 
against  allowing  himself  to  be  influenced  in  his  his- 
toric beliefs  by  the  representations  of  authors  whose 
prime  aim  is  to  please  and  absorb  the  reader,  rather 
than  to  present  fact. 

133.  Fiction  may  convey  Truth. — Fiction  may  be  the 
vehicle  of  truth,  but  not  largely  of  historic  truth.  It 
should  rather  aim  to  describe  passion  correctly,  and 


BHSTOMIG. 

show  its  legitimate  consequences.  It  may  indeed 
range  widely  over  the  entire  domain  of  science  and 
opinion,  so  far  as  they  can  be  illustrated  in  the  action 
and  conversation  and  experience  of  fancied  personages. 
134.  Variety  of  Style  appropriate  to  Fiction. — All  the 
rules  apply  ing  to  Representative  Writing  apply  to  this 
branch  of  literature.  Indeed  there  is  room  in  it  for  the 
exercise  of  every  possible  variety  of  style.  Though 
the  most  of  works  of  fiction  are  transient  in  their  in- 
fluence, yet  as  many  of  them  secure  permanent  influ- 
ence as,  perhaps,  of  any  department.  In  later  years, 
both  the  moral  and  intellectual  character  of  fiction 
have  greatly  improved.  The  "  Vicar  of  Wakefield," 
"Robinson  Crusoe,"  Johnson's  "Rasselas,"  "Gulli- 
ver's Travels,"  will  probably  be  remembered  and  read 
longer  than  any  other  productions  by  their  respective 
authors.  "  Knickerbocker's  History  of  New  York," 
a  burlesque  production,  may  be  remembered  as  long  as 
tble  history  written  by  "Washington  Irving. 
The  fictitious  writings  of  Dickens  have  called  atten- 
tion to  the  wretchedness  of  the  poor  and  ignorant  in 
his  native  country,  and  led  to  efforts  for  their  relief, 
while  the  writings  of  Thackeray  have  laid  bare  the 
follies  and  emptiness  of  a  merely  fashionable 'life  more 
efficiently  perhaps  than  either  essays  or  sermons  could 
have  done.  Cooper  and  Hawthorne  have  filled  out 
much  of  what  was  lacking  in  history,  to  complete  the 
picture  of  early  American  life.  Fiction  thus  will  always 
have  a  place  in  literature.  It  can  not  be  relied  upon 
to  elevate  the  tone  of  morals,  or  to  enlarge  the  do- 
mains of  exact  thought.  It  seeks  primarily  to  please, 


FICTION.  285 

though  secondarily  it  may  profit.  "  Uncle  'Tom's 
Cabin,"  by  Mrs.  H.  B.  Stowe,  has  perhaps  circulated 
more  widely  than  any  other  book  written  in  the  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  contributed  much 
to  form  opinion  upon  the  nature  of  American  slavery 
during  the  latest  period  of  its  existence. 

No  special  rules  farther  than  have  already  been 
given  are  needed  upon  this  branch  of  literature. 


J-0  RHETORIC. 


CHAPTER  XVIL 

POETRY. 

135.  Definition. — THE  word  poetry  is  used  with  so 
wide  a  latitude  of  meaning  that  few  have  attempted 
to  define  it  accurately,  and  very  diverse  descriptions 
of  it  are  given.  It  should  be  considered,  first,  with 
reference  to  its  substance,  and,  second,  with  reference 
to  its  form. 

Substantially,  Poetry  is  thought  produced  by  an  ex- 
cited imagination,  and  designed  primarily  to  please. 

This  definition  excludes  narrative,  the  prime  pur- 
pose of  which  is  to  relate  facts ;  science,  which  ex- 
plains the  nature  and  causes  of  things ;  oratory,  de- 
signed to  enlighten  and  persuade,  and  all  other  merely 
didactic  productions.  Wit  may  or  may  not  be  a  part 
of  Poetry,  but  it  has  an  empire  of  its  own. 

Shakspeare  presents  a  vivid  idea  of  Poetry  when 

"  The  poet's  eye  in  a  fine  frenzy  rolling, 
Doth  glance  from  heaven  to  earth,  from  earth  to  heaven ; 
And  as  imagination  bodies  forth 
The  forms  of  things  unknown,  the  poet's  pen 
Turns  them  to  shape,  and  gives  to  airy  nothing 
A  local  habitation  and  a  name." 

Another  poet  (Byron)  has  defined  his  own  art  thus : 

*'For  what  is  poesy,  but  to  create 
From  overfeeling,  good  or  ill ;  and  aim 


MEANING    OF  POET  MY.  287 

At  an  external  life,  beyond  our  fate, 
And.  be  the  new  Prometheus  of  new  men  ! 
Bestowing  fire  from  heaven,  and  then,  too  late 

Finding  the  pleasure  given  repaid  with  pain  ?" 

"All  they 
Whose  intellect  is  an  o'ermastering  power 

Which  still  recoils  from  its  encumbering  clay 
Or  lightens  it  to  spirit,  whatsoe'er 
The  form  which  their  creations  may  essay, 

Are  bards  ;  the  kindled  marble's  bust  may  wear 
More  poesy  upon  its  speaking  brow 
Than  aught  less  than  the  Homeric  page  may  bear  ; 

One  noble  stroke  with  the  whole  life  may  glow, 
Or  deify  the  canvas  till  it  shine 
With  beauty  so  surpassing  all  below. 

That  they  who  kneel  to  idols  so  divine 
Break  no  commandment,  for  high  heaven  is  there 
Transfused,  transfigurated :  and  the  line 

Of  poesy,  which  peoples  but  the  air 
With  thoughts  and  beings  of  our  thought  reflected, 
Can  do  n<5  more." 

The  object  of  the  poet,  in  this  sense  of  the  word,  is 
not  to  instruct,  not  to  persuade,  not  simply  to  amuse, 
but  to  allow  a  man  to  enjoy  the  thoughts  which  well 
up  in  his  own  soul. 

136.  The  more  comprehensive  Meaning  of  the  term 
Poetry. — Though  this  is  the  prime  meaning  of  Poetry, 
it  is  not  always  used  in  so  restricted  a  sense,  for  some- 
times it  embraces  another  object  besides  mere  gratifi- 
cation, and  therefore  we  have  such  divisions  as  didac- 
tic, patriotic,  and  religious  poetry. 

The  poet  is  a  maker  or  creator,  as  the  word  (from 
TTottw,  to  make)  would  signify.  The  imagination  is 
the  creative  faculty.  Taking  the  materials  already 
existing  in  the  mind,  and  gathered  by  observation  or 
its  own  exercise,  it  constructs  new  fabrics,  mental  and 


288  RHETORIC. 

moral,  or  adorns  old  themes  with  new  garments,  ac- 
cording to  its  own  affluence  of  thought. 

137.  Poetry  may  be  employed  to  aid  in  other  Produc- 
tions.— Poetry  in  this,  its  highest  meaning,  may  be  em- 
ployed as  an  assistant  in  all  other  kinds  of  composition. 
The  philosopher  may  clothe  and  illustrate  the  most  re- 
condite and  logical  discussions  with  poetical  imagery, 
as  Plato,  Cicero,  and  many  since  have  done.     The  ora- 
tor often,  by  the  aid  of  Poetry,  takes  his  hearers  into 
regions  never  before  visited,  and  reveals  to  them  ob- 
jects wonderful  to  gaze  upon.     Even  the  sober  histo- 
rian borrows  beauty  from  Poetry,  to  enliven  the  dull- 
ness of  the  theme,  and  Science  does  not  altogether  dis- 
dain her  aid. 

138.  Poetry  one  of  the  Fine  Arts. — Poetry  has  been 
called  one  of  the  Fine  Arts.     The  sisterhood  consists 
of  Painting,  Sculpture,  Architecture,  Music,  Poetry. 

The  prime  object  of  each  of  the  Fine  Arts  is  to 
please,  to  elevate  the  taste,  to  communicate  a  special 
gratification  of  its  own. 

Painting  and  Sculpture  may  be  used  to  instruct; 
Architecture  may  be  used  to  improve  buildings  wholly 
in  a  utilitarian  sense ;  but,  as  an  art,  it  refers  rather 
to  rendering  them  pleasing  to  the  eye  and  the  mind ; 
Music  may  be  used  to  alleviate  pain,  or  to  inspire 
patriotism  or  religious  feeling,  but  its  prime  purpose 
is  to  please.  So  Poetry  is  designed  to  produce  its 
own  peculiar  gratification. 

139.  Poetry  compared  with,  Painting  and  /Sculpture. — 
Poetry,  in  this  its  primitive  meaning,  has  often  been 
compared  with  Painting  and  Sculpture,  and  much  dif- 


POETRY  AND   PAINTING.  289 

ference  of  opinion  has  been  expressed  with  reference 
to  their  comparative  value. 

I  have  already  alluded  to  this  subject  in  the  ex- 
amination of  the  power  of  words,  pp.  23,  24.  The  dis- 
cussion is  indefinite,  and  an  exact  decision  can  not  be 
reached.  The  two  parties  misunderstand  each  other. 
In  pictures,  involving  only  what  can  be  seen,  Painting 
and  Sculpture  are  immeasurably  superior  to  Poetry. 
Poetry  can  use  only  words,  at  best  mere  representa- 
tives of  thoughts  liable  to  be  misunderstood.  Paint- 
ing can  use  form  and  colors.  Combined  with  Sculp- 
ture, she  can  reproduce  any  scene,  and  depict  beauties 
and  combinations  expressing  passion,  such  as  can  not 
be  described  by  language.  But  Poetry  has  a  range 
of  her  own.  She  can  describe  not  only  forms,  and  col- 
ors, and  sounds,  but  also  events,  expressed  thoughts, 
successive  actions,  courses,  and  effects,  shifting  scenes, 
and  embrace  in  her  picture  objects  almost  unlimited  in 
number,  time,  and  space.  The  .universe  of  thought  is 
hers. 

Poetry,  like  her  sister  arts,  does  not  restrict  herself 
to  facts,  but  constructs  new  creations.  Painting  occu- 
pies a  low  sphere  when  she  confines  herself  to  por- 
traits of  living  persons  or  to  landscapes  actually  seen  ; 
she  must  present  ideal  men,  and  animals,  and  angels, 
and  skies,  and  lands,  and  seas,  more  grand,  and  varie- 
gated, and  beautiful  than  human  eye  has  seen.  There 
are  objects  intrinsically  beautiful,  and  even  those  that 
are  singly  ugly  may  be  constructed  into  combinations 
that  will  charm  the  observer.  The  beautiful,  the  in- 
spiriting, the  soothing,  the  pathetic,  all  belong  to  the 

N 


•J90  RHETORIC. 

realm  of  Poetry.  She  deals  not  only  with  objects  that 
may  be  seen  and  felt,  but  even  associates  herself  with 
Music,  and  represents  sounds,  and  plays  with  every 
human  passion. 

140.  Poetry  suited  to  all  Grades  of  mental  Develop- 
ment.— It  has  been  thought  by  some  that  Poetry  ex- 
erts its  full  power  only  over  the  young  mind,  and  that 
as  the  reason  is  strengthened  by  discipline  and  hard 
practical  usage,  the  pleasures  of  the  imagination  will 
be  outgrown.     This  is  a  great  error.     Imagination  is 
an  element  of  the  immortal  mind.     There  is  no  maxi- 
mum of  power  for  it  to  reach.     It  may  be  dispropor- 
tionately indulged,  or  rather  the  other  faculties  may 
be  neglected. 

Similar  is  the  error,  that  the  world,  as  it  advances 
in  culture,  will  outgrow  Poetry.  It  may  be  true  that 
Poetry  is  actually  older  than  Prose.  It  is  certain  that  a 
disproportionately  large  part  of  the  most  ancient  liter- 
ature is  poetical  in  form.  This  may  be  owing  to  the 
greater  vitality  of  Poetry,  which  has  led  it  to  survive 
its  weaker  and  plainer  associate,  prosaic  fact. 

141.  How  Poetry  is  modified  by  Science. — But  as  sci- 
ence and  philosophy  advance,  Poetry  has  new  themes 
to  work  upon.     Once  it  was  absorbed  with  the  de- 
scriptions of  heroes  and  their  companions,  of  wars  and 
domestic  life,  of  the  rude  gods  and  goddesses  which 
an  ignorant  age  imagined ;  but  it  has  advanced  now 
to  portray  deeper  passion,  broader  views,  higher  aspi- 
rations, purer  faith,  than  the  ancients  knew.     Its  realm 
is  boundless. 

In  accuracy  of  the  description  of  nature  as  it  ap- 


HOW  POETS  T  IS  MODIFIED.  291 

pears  to  the  uncultivated  eye,  in  the  portraiture  of  the 
ruder  and  stronger  passions,  in  sweetness  and  purity 
of  versification,  Homer  has  never  been  excelled.  In 
that  early  age  he  stands  on  a  proud  eminence  alone, 
though  probably  many  poets  preceded  him ;  yet  can 
any  candid  critic  deny  that  in  Dante,  Milton,  and  other 
modern  Christian  poets,  are  found  fields  wholly  un- 
known to  the  classic  poets  of  antiquity,  equal  in  their 
new  resources,  and  stirring  the  soul  even  more  pro- 
foundly ? 

142.  Imagination  should  be   Regulated.  —  Though 
Poetry  creates,  it  should  not  be  so  wild  and  fantastic 
in  its  creations  as  to  displease  the  mind.     Nature  has 
laws  and  limitations  that  must  not  be  violated,  even  in 
fancy.     Grotesque  conceptions,  impossible  in  fact,  can 
be  tolerated  only  in  a  limited  degree.     Repeated  too 
often,  they  weary  and  displease.     The  best  poet  is  he 
who  imitates  most  closely  the  great  Creator;  and 
though  he  is  allowed  on  his  own  territory  to  construct 
new  combinations,  makes  them  so  harmonious  as  to 
charm  and  satisfy  the  soul. 

Pain,  deformity,  calamity,  crime,  ugly  and  horrible 
conceptions  of  every  kind,  may  be  presented  by  the 
poet,  but  there  should  be  such  an  under-current  of 
sympathy  with  the  beautiful  and  the  good,  and  the 
roughnesses  and  deformities  should  be  so  smoothed 
and  shaded  off,  as  to  please  the  mind. 

143.  Poetry  and  Prophecy. — The  poet  dwells  more 
in  the  future  than  in  the  past.     If  he  paints  the  gold- 
en age  of  antiquity,  it  is  only  to  promise  greater  glo- 
ries to  come.     The  spirit  of  poetry  is  pre-eminently 


292  RHETORIC. 

fitted  to  blend  with  Christian  faith  and  hope  ;  and  sci- 
ence, though  it  may  materialize  and  harden  some  who 
are  too  exclusively  devoted  to  it,  only  opens  new  and 
wider  fields  in  which  the  creative  imagination  may 
roam  and  revel. 

144.  Value  and  Prevalence  of  Poetry. — It  would  be 
extraneous  to  our  object  to  inquire  into  the  propriety 
of  cultivating  the  poetic  faculty.     God  has  given  it  to 
man.     It  is  not  to  be  wrapped  in  a  napkin  and  buried 
in  the  earth.     It  enlivens  history;  it  infinitely  en- 
larges our  limited  home ;  it  directs  science  by  antici- 
pating its  discussions,  and  putting  the  investigator  on 
the  right  track ;  it  guides  the  legislator  and  the  ruler. 
It  hafc  its  own  separate  function,  and  is  an  aid  and  a 
pleasant  companion  in  all  the  walks  of  life. 

Looking  only  at  the  substance  of  Poetry,  we  may 
find  it  diffused  throughout  all  literature :  in  oratory, 
philosophy,  science.  The  child  is  a  poet  when  in  im- 
agination it  endows  material  things  with  conscious- 
ness. 

Much  poetry,  too,  has  never  been  written.  In  the 
language  of  Byron  : 

"Many  are  the  poets  that  have  never  penned 
Their  inspiration,  and  perchance  the  i 

Poetry  as  above  described  is  the  correlative,  not  of 
Prose,  but  of  Science. 

145.  The  peculiar  Forms  of  Poetry.  —  But  Poetry 
tends  to  clothe  herself  in  a  peculiar  appropriate  garb. 
She  wreathes  language  into  new  and  beautiful  forms, 
accommodating  it  to  her  own  various  imagery  and 
novel  combinations  of  thought 


PARALLELISM.  293 

146.  Parallelism. — One  of  the  earliest  modifications 
of  the  natural  prosaic  style  adopted  by  Poetry  is  call- 
ed Parallelism,  and  is  found  in  great  perfection'in  He- 
brew literature.  Parallelism  consists  of  a  double  verse, 
or  stanza,  in  which  the  second  member  repeats  the  idea 
expressed  in  the  first — generally  more  specifically  and 
forcibly.  Thus : 

"  What  is  man,  that  thou  regardest  him? 
Or  the  son  of  man,  that  thou  visitest  him  ?" 

"  Thou  hast  turned  for  me  my  mourning  into  dancing, 
Thou  hast  put  off  my  sackcloth,  and  girded  me  with  gladness." 

"  I  will  bless  the  Lord  at  all  tunes : 
His  praise  shall  continually  be  in  my  mouth." 

In  sober  prose  such  expressions  might  be  regarded 
as  tautological,  but  in  verse  the  repetition  was  designed 
but  to  deepen  the  impression. 

In  the  Hebrew  the  language  does  in  some  degree 
correspond  in  the  correlated  members.  This  Parallel- 
ism issometimes  called  "thought-rhythm."  The  mind 
is  pleased  with  it,  and  beautiful  specimens  of  it  may 
be  found  in  modern  poetry  as  well  as  in  the  Bible. 
Sometimes  the  second  sentence  inverts  the  order  of 
the  first.  We  give  some  modern  instances  : 

."  Famine  is  in  thy  cheeks, 

Need  and  oppression  stareth  in  thine  eyes. " 

"  A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing  : 
Drink  deep,  or  taste  not  the  Pierian  spring  : 
There  shallow  draughts  intoxicate  the  brain, 
And  drinking  largely  sobers  us  again." 

"Then  pay  the  reverence  of  old  days 

To  his  dead  fame, 
Walk  backward,  with  averted  gaze, 
And  hide  the  shame. " 


•_'04  KUETORIC. 

147.  Rhythm. — Poetry  also  adopts  the  use  of  rhyth- 
mical language,  or  expressions  that  have  a  musical 
sound.     We  see  the  first  elements  of  this  tendency  in 
many  of  the  oldest  proverbs,  such  as  "  Man  proposes, 
God  disposes ;"  "  Easy  come,  easy  go." 

148.  Accent. — The  measuring  of  language  by  Poet- 
ry consists  in  the  regular  recurrence  of  similarly  ac- 
cented syllables  at  short  intervals. 

149.  Verse. — A  Verse  is  a  limited  number  of  sylla- 
bles with  an  established  order  of  accents,  usually  writ- 
ten in  one  line,  as : 

"  The  curfew  tolls,  the  knell  of  parting  day. " 

Verses  may  vary  in  length  and  accent.  We  give 
other  specimens : 

"  To  arms !  they  come !  the  Greek !  the  Greek ! " 
"  In  your  kingdom  of  vanity,  give  him  a  place." 
"  Take  her  up  tenderly. 

The  word  verse  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  all 
forms  of  poetry. 

150.  Stanzas.  —  A  collection  of  verses  of  a  certain 
defined  number  and  order  is  called  a  Stanza. 

"  Thou  art,  O  God,  the  life  and  light 
Of  all  this  wondrous  world  we  see ; 
Its  glow  by  day,  its  smile  by  night 
Are  but  reflections  caught  from  Thee : 
Where'er  we  turn,  thy  glories  shine, 
And  all  things  fair  and  bright  are  Thine." 

Stanzas  vary  much  in  the  number  of  their  verses 
or  lines,  also  in  their  length,  accent,  and  order.  The 
most  noted  kind  is  perhaps  the  Spenserian  stanza,  of 
which  the  following  is  a  specimen  : 


POETICAL   FEET.  295 

"There  is  a  pleasure  in  the  pathless  woods, 

There  is  a  rapture  on  the  lonely  shore, 
There  is  society  where  none  intrudes, 

By  the  deep  sea,  and  music  in  its  roar. 

I  love  not  Man  the  less,  but  Nature  more, 
From  these  our  interviews,  in  which  I  steal 

From  all  I  may  be,  or  have  been  before, 
To  mingle  with  the  universe,  and  feel 
What  I  can  ne'er  express,  yet  can  not  all  conceal." 

151.  Poetical  Feet.  —  Any  regular  succession  of  syl- 
lables is  called  a  foot.  Thus  two  syllables  equally 
accented  in  immediate  succession  are  called  a  spondee, 
but  no  entire  verse  could  be  made  up  of  spondees. 

"  Painfully  he  rolled  the  stone 
hill." 


A  short  or  unaccented  syllable,  and  along  or  accent- 
ed syllable  immediately  following,  make  an  iambus. 

An  anapest  consists  of  three  syllables,  the  last  being 
accented. 

A  trochee  consists  of  two  syllables,  the  first  being 
accented. 

A  dactyl  consists  of  three  syllables,  the  first  being 
accented. 

The  iambus  and  anapest  may  be  used  promiscuous- 
ly, as  they  sound  alike. 

Also  the  trochee  and  dactyl  may  be  interchanged 
for  each  other. 

A  short  pause  is  required  by  the  ear  at  the  close 
of  every  line  of  verse,  if  it  is  written  properly,  even 
though  the  grammatical  sense  does  not  require  it. 

Also  somewhere  in  a  long  line,  generally  near  the 
middle,  a  pause  is  required  by  the  melody,  called  a 
caesural  pause. 


RHETORIC. 

All  the  principles  of  verse  are  laid  down  and  illus- 
trated in  elementary  treatises  on  grammar,  and  it  is 
not  deemed  necessary  in  this  work  to  dwell  minutely 
upon  them. 

152.  Various  Kinds  of  Verse. — Verse  is  divided  into 
various  kinds,  according  to  the  kind  of  foot  princi- 
pally or  solely  employed.  Thus  we  have  iambic,  tro- 
chaic, anapestic,  and  dactylic  verse. 

The  iambic  measure  is  the  most  common,  and  when 
each  line  has  five  iambic  feet,  or  at  most  five  with 
a  short  syllable  added,  it  is  said  to  be  in  the  heroic 
measure. 

"  Him  first  to  love,  great  right  and  reason  is, 
Who  first  to  us  our  life  and  being  gave ; 
And  after,  when  we  faced  had  amiss, 

Us  wretches  from  the  second  death  did  save." 

An  Alexandrine  verse  consists  of  six  iambuses,  as 
follows : 

"  A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song, 
Which,  like  a  wounded  snake,  drags  its  slow  length  along." 

Trochaic,  anapestic,  and  dactylic  verse  respective- 
ly, consist  of  the  feet  indicated  by  the  name.  We  give 
specimens  of  the  three  kinds  successively : 

"  Count  me  o'er  earth's  chosen  heroes ;  they  were  souls  that  stood  alone, 
While  the  men  they  agonized  for  hurled  the  contumelious  stone, 
Stood  serene,  and  down  the  future  saw  the  golden  beam  incline, 
To  the  side  of  perfect  justice,  master'd  by  their  faith  divine, 
By  one  man's  plain  truth  to  manhood  and  to  God's  supreme  design. " 

"  What  a  mercy  is  this !     What  a  heavenly  bliss  ! 

How  unspeakably  happy  am  I ! 
Gathered  into  the  fold,  with  thy  people  enrolled, 
With  thy  people  to  live  and  to  die." 


HEXAMETER    VERSE.  297 

"  Cling  to  the  crucified! 
His  death  is  life  to  thee  ! 
Life  for  eternity : 
His  pains  thy  pardon  seal, 
His  stripes  thy  bruises  heal, 
His  cross  proclaims  thy  peace, 
Bids  every  sorrow  cease, 
His  blood  is  all  to  thee : 
Cling  to  the  crucified  !" 

153.  Various  Metres. — The  mingling  of  these  vari- 
ous measures,  and  the  employment  of  verses  of  vari- 
ous lengths,  and  stanzas  varying  in  the  number  of 
their  verses,  give  us  the  numberless  metres  or  kinds 
of  versification  actual  and  possible. 

Many  more  are  employed  in  modern  times  than 
were  known  to  the  ancients,  and  some  that  were  much 
used  in  former  times  are  now  almost  wholly  neg- 
lected. 

154.  Hexameter  Verse.  —  The  hexameter  verse,  in 
which  the  Iliad  of  Homer  and  the  ^Eneid  of  Virgil 
were  written,  was  the  kind  most  prized  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  for  the  most  dignified,  elevated  poetry. 
For  a  long  time  it  was  thought  to  be  incompatible 
with  the  accent  of  the  English  language,  but  of  late 
some  good  English  hexameters  have  been  written. 
Still  it  is  in  English  an  exotic,  not  "  to  the  manner 
born,"  and,  except  for  short  productions,  not  likely  to 
command  the  interest  of  many  readers.     We  give  a 
specimen  from  Longfellow : 

' '  Even  as  rivulets  twain,  from  distant  and  separate  sources, 
Seeing  each  other  afar,  as  they  leap  from  the  rocks  and  pursuing 
Each  one  its  devious  path,  but  drawing  nearer  and  nearer, 
Rush  together  at  last,  at  their  trysting-place  in  the  forest ; 

N2 


298  RHETUJII' 

So  these  lives  that  had  run  thus  far  in  separate  channels, 
Coming  in  sight  of  each  other,  then  swerving  and  flowing  asunder, 
Parted  by  barriers  strong,  but  drawing  nearer  and  nearer, 
Ku.<hed  together  at  last,  and  one  was  lost  in  the  other." 

155.  The  Sonnet.  —  Some  of  the  most  elegant  and 
labored  short  poems  have  been  in  the  form  called  a 
Sonnet.     The  following  is  a  good  specimen,  from  J. 
Blanco  White : 

"  Mysterious  Night !  when  our  first  parent  knew 

Thee  from  report  divine,  and  heard  thy  name, 

Did  he  not  tremble  for  this  lovely  frame, 
This  glorious  canopy  of  light  and  blue  ? 
Yet  'neath  a  curtain  of  translucent  dew, 

Bathed  in  the  rays  of  the  great  setting  flame, 

Hesperus,  with  the  host  of  heaven,  came, 
And  lo !  creation  widened  in  man's  view. 

Who  could  have  thought  such  darkness  lay  concealed 
Within  thy  beams,  O  Sun  ?  or  who  could  find, 

Whilst  fly,  and  leaf,  and  insect  stood  revealed, 
That  to  such  countless  orbs  thou  mad'st  us  blind  ? 

Why  do  we,  then,  shun  death  with  anxious  strife? 

If  light  can  thus  deceive,  wherefore  not  life  ?" 

156.  Rhyme. — Rhyme  is  the  correspondence  in  the 
sound  of  the  terminating  syllables  of  ^vo  lines  in  im- 
mediate succession,  or  not  far  removed  from  each 
other.     Sometimes  certain  other  syllables  in  two  lines 
immediately  succeeding  each   other    correspond   in 
sound,  or  constitute  rhyme.     This  is  by  some  said  to 
be   a  modern  invention,  simply  because  the  ancient 
Greek  and  Latin  poets  did  not  employ  it,  but  it  was 
employed  in  the  Sanscrit  and  other  early  Asiatic  lit- 
erature long  before  the  Christian  era. 

157.  Alliteration. — Alliteration,  or  the  repetition  of 
the  same  sound  at  the  beginning  of  successive  words, 
has  been  used  as  an  ornament  in  poetry,  but  never  to 


ALLITERATION— MERE    VERSE.  299 

so  great  an  extent  as  rhyme,  and,  except  to  a  very 
limited  extent,  it  is  regarded  as  of  no  value.  Pope 
frequently  employed  it,  as  in  this  line  : 

"  Up  the  high  h'tii  he  Aeaved  a  huge  round  stone." 

Alliteration  was  very  common  in  the  old  English 
ballads.  The  following  verses  from  "  The  Marriage 
of  Sir  Gawaine  "  may  be  taken  as  a  specimen : 

"Kinge  Arthur  fives  in  merry  Car/ei/e, 

And  seemely  is  to  see, 

And  there  he  hath  with  him  Queene  Guenever, 
That  6ride  soe  Bright  of  Wee. 

"  And  there  he  hath  with  him  Queene  Guenever, 

That  6ride  soe  Aright  in  ftowre, 
And  all  his  Karons  about  him  stoode 
That  were  both  stifle  and  stowre." 

Rhymes  and  alliterations  are  often  mingled  in  mod- 
ern poetry.  The  following  verse  employs  both : 

"  Three  kings  there  are  to  rule  the  world,  and  mightier  none  could  be ; 
Howe'er  he  strive,  no  man  alive,  from  their  control  is  free. 
And  one  is  yellow,  and  one  is  black,  and  one  is  white  as  snow — 
The  yellow  one  is  the  elder  one,  but  not  the  stronger  though — 
By  these  and  theirs  the  world's  affairs  are  rigorously  controlled ; 
And  the  names  these  mighty  monarchs  bear  are  Cotton,  Coal,  and 
Gold." 

158.  Verse  without  true  Poetry. — We  have  spoken 
of  Yerse  thus  far  as  a  dress  assumed  by  Poetry  ;  but 
it  is  oftener  employed  when  the  thought  expressed  is 
not  poetical.  Measured  language  is  itself  pleasing  to 
the  ear,  and,  especially  when  accompanied  with  rhyme, 
is  more  easily  remembered  than  prose.  It  is  therefore 
employed  sometimes  to  express  almost  every  variety 
of  thought.  Yerse  is  often  used  as  a  mnemonic,  for 


RHETORIC. 

the  expression  of  facts  which  it  is  convenient  always 
to  have  at  command.  Nearly  all  are  familiar  with  the 
stanza : 

"  Thirty  days  has  September — 
April,  June,  and  November : 
All  the  rest  have  thirty-one, 

pting  February  alone, 
Which  has  eight  above  a  score, 
But  in  leap-year  has  one  more." 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  express  in  verse  the 
rules  of  grammar  and  logic,  and  the  leading  facts  in 
geography,  but  it  is  found  that  a  healthy  memory  re- 
jects a  large  quality  of  mere  jingle,  that  adds  noth- 
ing to  the  naked  facts. 

159.  Poetry  used  as  synonymous  with  Verse.  —  Still 
by  a  very  natural  metonymy,  the  usual  form  of  poetry, 
verse,  stands  for  the  substance  in  popular  usage. 
Whately  says:  "Notwithstanding  all  that  has  been 
said  by  some  French  critics  to  prove  that  a  work,  not 
in  metre,  may  be  a  poem  (which  doctrine  was  partly 
derived  from  a  misinterpretation  of  a  passage  in  Aris- 
totle's poetics),  universal  opinion  has  always  given  a 
contrary  decision."* 

Poetry,  as  usually  understood,  includes  all  literary 
productions  which  are  in  the  form  of  measured  lan- 
guage or  verse,  and  excludes  all  others. 

It  is  evident  from  this  definition  that  poetry  nev- 
er reveals  its  full  power  but  when  read  aloud,  with 
proper  intonation  and  emphasis. 

Children  take  great  delight  in  verse,  showing  that 
there  is  a  natural  passion  for  measured  language. 

*  Whately's  Rhetoric,  part  iii.  chap.  iii.  §  3. 


NONSENSICAL    VERSE.  301 

"Mother  Goose's  Melodies,"  and  other  juvenile  litera- 
ture, illustrate  this  fact. 

160.  Importance  of  correct  Measure. — All  writers  of 
correct  Poetry  in  any  form  of  verse  should  observe 
faithfully  the  laws  of  versification.     Imperfect  meas- 
ure and  faulty  rhymes  may  indeed  be  found  in  some 
good  poems,  but  young  writers  should  not  be  excused 
for  employing  them. 

161.  Nonsensical  Verse. — One  of  the  greatest  faults 
in  poetry,  so  called,  is  the  presentation  of  a  body  with- 
out any  soul — a  mere  pleasing  combination  of  sounds, 
with  little  meaning.     This  kind  of  cjom position  is  well 
illustrated  in  the  following  lines : 

"  How  evanescent  and  marine 
Are  thy  chaotic'  uplands  seen, 

Oh,  ever  sublapsarian  moon  ; 
A  thousand  viaducts  of  light 
Were  not  so  spherically  bright 
Or  ventilated  half  so  soon. 

"  And  now  again  my  bark  is  tost 
Upon  the  raging  holocaust 
Of  that  acidulated  sea ; 
And  diapasons,  pouring  down, 
With  lunar  caustic  join,  to  drown 
My  transcendental  epopee." 

Much  so-called  poetry  has  but  little  more  sense 
than  this. 


302  MHEXOR1V. 


CHAPTER  XYIII. 

SPECIES     OF     POETRY. 

162.  Various  Kinds  of  Poetical  Composition. — THERE 
are  several  leading  kinds  of  poetry,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  as  most  important,  the  Lyric,  the  Epic, 
the  Dramatic,  and  the  Humorous. 

163.  Lyric  Poetry. — Lyric  Poetry  embraces  all  that 
is  written  to  be  sung,  and  which  may  be  accompanied 
by  a  musical  instrument,  as  odes,  hymns,  songs. 

These  are  usually  brief,  and  each  one  should  ex- 
press at  least  one  leading  thought,  and  inspire  at  least 
one  passion.  They  are  not  always  written  to  be  sung, 
and  may  be  of  such  a  metre  that  it  would  be  difficult 
to  accompany  them  with  music. 

Among  them  may  be  mentioned  hymns,  patriotic 
songs,  love-songs,  and  odes  on  almost  all  subjects  that 
inspire  enthusiasm  or  unwonted  emotion. 

Hymns  are  confessedly  among  the  most  difficult  com- 
positions to  write.  The  best  examples  in  the  world 
are  some  of  the  Psalms  of  David — psalms  which  in 
various  languages  have  been  sung  for  thousands  of 
years,  and  will  never  be  forgotten.  Some  of  the  hymns 
of  Luther,  "Watts,  Charles  Wesley,  and  other  Christian 
poets,  may  be  regarded  as  models.  The  hymns  best 
adapted  to  the  public  worship  of  God  are  not  highly 


PATRIOTIC  POETRY.  303 

imaginative  and  metaphorical,  but  rather  in  simple 
language  expressive  of  the  appropriate  emotion.  Ex- 
traordinary sentiment  and  artificial  expressions  tend  to 
become  displeasing  by  frequent  repetition.  Hence  the 
difficulty  of  writing  a  hymn  that  shall  be  both  express- 
ive and  popular.  The  metre  too  should  be  faultless. 

What  is  called  religious  poetry  is  the  most  difficult 
to  write  well.  Adoration,  penitence,  gratitude,  love, 
and  other  religious  emotions,  blend  with  and  employ 
the  imagination,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  express  these 
emotions  appropriately  and  forcibly,  and  at  the  same 
time  not  violate  good  taste.  The  highest  culture  finds 
here  an  appropriate  field  for  exercise. 

Patriotic  songs  are  numerous,  but  how  few  have  be- 
come popular !  Generally  they  are  either  too  simple 
or  too  abstruse,  too  prosaic  or  too  artificial,  to  strike 
the  heart  of  the  people.  The  "  Marseilles  Hymn  " 
inspires  every  true  Frenchman  with  national  pride. 
"  God  save  the  King !"  seems  to  express  the  fervent 
prayer  of  every  Englishman.  The  United  States  has 
no  patriotic  song  universally  popular.  "  Hail  Colum- 
bia "  is  highly  esteemed  by  many.  The  song  begin- 
ning, "  My  Country,  'tis  of  thee,"  is  a  hymn,  and  in 
rhythm  and  force  of  thought  deserves  a  high  place. 
"  Kally  round  the  Flag  "  is  deservedly  popular.  "  The 
Star-spangled  Banner  "  is  only  made  popular  by  the 
beauty  of  the  music  connected  with  it. 

The  genius  of  the  American  people  does  not  seem 
to  exhibit  itself  in  patriotic  songs  so  much  as  in  hymns. 
More  of  the  people  undoubtedly  can  sing  several  of 
our  most  popular  religious  hymns  than  any  patriotic 


RHETORIC. 

song  whatever.  Though  the  tune  of  "  Yankee  Doo- 
dle" is  known  by  all,  it  yet  awaits  a  popular  song,  if 
indeed  it  is  possible  to  construct  a  good  song  in  such 
a  measure. 

Love-songs  embrace  some  of  the  most  finished  and 
beautiful  compositions  in  the  language.  Every  affec- 
tion of  the  heart  may  be  expressed  in  this  form, ,  ]  In- 
deed, Lyric  Poetry  has  been  more  successfully  culti- 
vated lately  than  any  other  department.  There  is  a 
good  reason  for  this.  The  true  region  of  Poetry  is 
elevated  above  the  ordinary  tone  of  thought  and  feel- 
ing. The  more  intense  the  excitement,  the  shorter  is 
the  time  during  which  it  can  be  sustained.  The  best 
poems,  therefore,  are  brief,  and  nearly  all  brief  poems 
belong  to  the  lyric  class. 

Odes  embrace  nearly  all  short  poems  except  those 
kinds  already  mentioned.  It  would  be  vain  to  de- 
scribe them,  so  countless  is  their  variety.  "Words- 
worth's "  Intimations  of  Immortality  in  Childhood," 
Coleridge's  "  Address  to  Mount  Blanc,"  Poe's  "  Song 
of  a  Raven"  and  his  "  Song  of  the  Bells,"  Bryant's 
"  Autumnal  Days,"  Longfellow's  "  Excelsior,"  and 
Whittier's  "  Cry  of  a  Lost  Soul,"  and  many  other  pro- 
ductions by  these  and  other  popular  poets,  belong  to 
this  class. 

164.  Epic  Poetry. — Epic  Poetry,  in  its  perfection, 
embraces  only  certain  long  poems  of  a  historic  form, 
in  which  the  personages  whose  actions  are  described 
are  wholly  or  partly  imaginary.  Many  poems  have 
been  written  in  this  form,  but  nearly  all  have  speedily 
fallen  into  oblivion. 


EPIC1  POEMS.  305 

« 

The  leading  Epic  Poems  in  the  world  are  Homer's 
"Iliad,"  Virgil's  "^Eneid,"  Dante's  "Divina  Comme- 
dia,  "  Camoen's  "Lusiad,"  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Deliv- 
ered," and  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost."  To  these  may 
perhaps  be  added  the  famous  "Niebelungen  Lied," 
whose  authorship  is  unknown,  and  Pollok's  "  Course 
of  Time,"  though  the  former  is  read  but  little  out  of 
Germany,  and  the  latter  but  little  except  by  those  peo- 
ple of  England  and  the  United  States  who  prize  it 
highly  for  its  religious  sentiment. 

Some  grand  purpose  gives  character  to  an  Epic 
Poem,  and  it  has  at  least  one  leading  hero,  though  by 
way  of  illustration  and  episode  a  great  variety  of 
themes  and  characters  may  be  introduced.  Often, 
what  has  been  called  "  machinery,"  or  supernatural 
characters,  are  introduced,  such  as  gods  and  goddesses 
by  the  heathen  poets,  and  angels  and  departed  spirits 
by  Christian  poets.  The  poets  gave  form  to  the  an- 
cient mythology. 

There  are  many  long  poems,  not  called  epic,  that 
nevertheless  are  similar  in  character.  In  all  long 
poems,  such  as  Young's  "Night  Thoughts,"  Mont- 
gomery's "World before  the  Flood," Co wper's" Task," 
Byron's  "Childe  Harold,"  Longfellow's  "Hiawatha," 
Wordsworth's  "  Excursion,"  etc.,  extraordinary  merit 
is  necessary  to  sustain  the  interest.  Indeed,  long 
poems  have  but  comparatively  few  readers,  and  there 
can  be  but  little  doubt  that  even  the  great  epics  of 
established  fame  are  more  eulogized  than  read. 

165.  Dramatic  Poetry.  —  Dramatic  Poetry  is  in  the 
form  of  Dialogue,  and  is  primarily  designed  to  be  recited 


30C  RHETORIC. 

on  the  stage.  The  laws  pertaining  to  this  species  of 
composition  have  already  been  given  in  the  chapter 
on  Representative  Writing.  Tragedy  is  noble  in  its 
character,  endeavoring  to  illustrate  some  strong  pas- 
sion, and  generally  represents  one  or  more  of  its  charac- 
ters struggling  with  difficulties  external  or  internal, 
sometimes  conquering  and  sometimes  overcome.  It 
deals  with  the  strongest  passions,  and  presents  the  sub- 
limest  thoughts.  Comedy,  on  the  other  hand,  is  de- 
signed to  excite  mirth,  sometimes  contempt,  and  sel- 
dom rises  to  pathos  or  earnestness. 

In  a  few  instances  both  are  blended  in  one  compo- 
sition. 

A  greater  variety  of  measure  is  allowable  in  Dra- 
matic than  in  Epic  Poetry,  and  sometimes  some  of  the 
characters  speak  in  prose. 

Many  poems  written  in  the  form  of  the  Drama  were 
never  designed  for  the  theatre. 

166.  Humorous  Poetry.  —  Humorous  Poetry  deals 
principally  with  wit.  Every  species  of  wit  may  be 
employed  by  the  poet. 

Sometimes  the  object  of  the  poet  seems  to  be  only 
to  produce  laughter,  by  the  strange  combinations  of 
thought  presented.  Sometimes  the  wit  consists  in 
ludicrous  descriptions  of  laughable  facts  or  groups  of 
objects.  Sometimes  the  strangeness  of  the  metre  and 
rhyme  is  itself  witty.  In  this  kind  of  writing  the 
moderns  immeasurably  surpass  the  ancients. 

Some  of  the  best  specimens  of  this  kind  of  compo- 
sition may  be  found  in  the  writings  of  Thomas  Hood, 
O.  AV.  Holmes,  and  Alfred  Saxe. 


ADVANTAGES    OF    WRITING    VERSE.         307 

167.  The  Ear  should  be  cultivated.  —  The  language 
of  Poetry  is  pre-eminently  addressed  to  the  ear,  and 
therefore  to  be  fully  appreciated  it  should  be  read 
aloud,  with  proper  accent  and  emphasis. 

168.  Advantages  of  writing   Verse.  —  Every  young 
writer  should  exercise  himself  thoroughly  in  writing 
various  kinds  of  verse.     It  is  the  best  kind  of  gym- 
nastics for  writers.     It  leads  to  searching  for  proper 
and  expressive  words.     In  all  instances  perfect  cor- 
rectness in  measure  and  rhyme  should  be  sought" 


PART  IV. 

INVENTION. 


INVENTION  DEFINED.  311 


CHAPTER  I. 

NATURE  OF  INVENTION,  AND  SOME  GENERAL  RULES. 

1.  Definition. — INVENTION  in  Rhetoric  is,  primarily, 
the  process  by  which  an  author  obtains  the  material  to 
be  used,  and  devises  and  perfects  the  forms  which  he 
will  employ  to  accomplish  his  purpose. 

Invention,  secondarily,  teaches  how  to  choose  sub- 
jects upon  which  to  speak  or  write,  how  to  gather  ma- 
terial, and  how  to  execute  his  purposes  with  it. 

2.  MiWs  Description  of  Invention. — John    Stuart 
Mill,  in  his  excellent  work  on  Logic, *  states  the  truth 
on  this  subject  forcibly,  so  far  as  it  applies  to  Induc- 
tion.    The  same  principle  applies  to  all  Invention. 

"Invention,  though  it  can  be  cultivated,  can  not  be  reduced  to  ruk ; 
there  is  no  science  which  will  enable  a  man  to  bethink  himself  of  that 
which  will  suit  his  purpose.  But  when  he  has  thought  of  something, 
science  will  tell  him  whether  that  which  he  has  thought  of  will  suit 
his  purpose  or  not." 

We  may  add  here,  that  there  is  no  science  which 
will  teach  a  man  how  to  form  a  purpose.  He  must 
have  that  spontaneously,  or  growing  out  of  circum- 
stances— which  may  be  to  prove  a  truth,  to  dissemi- 
nate a  doctrine,  to  produce  a  conviction,  to  lead  to  or 
prevent  some  action,  or  to  amuse,  etc.  But  when  the 
purpose  is  formed,  and  what  will  suit  his  purpose  is 
*  Vol.  i.  p.  311  (London,  1856). 


312  RHETORIC. 

suggested  to  his  mind,  both  may  be  matured  and  per- 
fected by  science.     Mr.  Mill  adds  : 

"The  inquirer  or  argner  must  be  guided  by  his  own  knowledge 
and  sagacity  in  the  choice  of  his  inductions  out  of  which  he  will  con- 
struct his  argument.  But  the  validity  of  the  argument,  when  con- 
structed, depends  on  principles,  and  must  be  tried  by  tests  which  are 
the  same  for  all  inquiries." 

According  to  the  same  principle  we  may  add,  that 
the  propriety  of  using  any  figure  of  speech,  an}'  par- 
ticular mode  of  composition,  must  be  decided,  con- 
sciously or  unconsciously,  properly  or  improperly,  by 
the  laws  of  Khetoric. 

3.  Rules  can  not  exhaust  the  Subject — It  is  plainly  im- 
possible to  lay  down  rules  upon  this  subject  that  shall 
embrace  it  entirely,  for  genius  is  ever  striking  out  new 
paths.     On  this  account,  probably,  many  treatises  on 
Khetoric  omit  the  subject  of  Invention  entirely,  and 
others  make  no  attempt  to  present  what  can  be  of  any 
practical  value. 

^We  present  a  few  general  rules  which  should  guide 
in  Invention. 

4.  The  First  Rule. — The  writer  or  speaker  should  in 
all  cases,  before  proceeding  to  his  work,  form  a  definite 
idea  of  what  he  intends  to  accomplish. 

It  may  be  that  his  circumstances  already  give  him 
a  specific  purpose.  Is  he  called  upon  to  defend  a  cer- 
tain proposition,  to  advocate  a  certain  project,  to  de- 
scribe a  certain  object,  or  to  accomplish  any  other  spe- 
cific end  ?  His  powers  of  invention  will  at  once  be 
aroused  and  directed  by  that  act. 

If  he  has  no  definite  end  in  view  except  simply  to 


PLAGIARISM.  313 

write  an  article  or  make  an  address,  then  his  first  pur- 
pose must  be  arbitrarily  to  choose  a  theme.  Let  him 
decide  what  object  he  will  determine  to  accomplish, 
whether  to  instruct,  to  encourage,  to  dissuade,  or  to 
amuse,  or  perhaps  several  of  these.  Then  let  him 
choose  a  theme.  Having  chosen  a  theme,  let  him  ad- 
here to  it  and  accomplish  his  purpose.  The  worst 
habit  for  a  speaker  or  writer  to  form,  is  the  habit  of 
retreating  from  tasks  once  entered  upon.  There  is  no 
conceivable  theme  upon  which  a  good  article  may  not 
be  written.  The  choice  of  a  subject  for  a  special  pur- 
pose may  indeed  be  faulty,  and  if  so  should  be  changed ; 
at  the  same  time  more  depends  on  the  genius,  study, 
and  industry  of  the  author, 'than  upon  the  theme. 

5.  The  Second  Rule.  —  Having  determined  in  what 
general  form  the  subject  shall  be  discussed — whether  to 
describe  something,  or  to  prove  something,  or  to  rebut 
some  falsehood,  or  simply  to  please — the  writer  should 
collect  information,  and  thoughts,  and  facts,  and  illustra- 
tions bearing  on  the  subject. 

Some  authors  commit  to  writing  these  collections 
and  preparations,  made  previous  to  the  main  work. 
Others  simply  impress  them  on  the  memory.  Either 
practice  may  be  carried  to  an  extreme.  If  writing  is 
solely  relied  upon,  the  memory  is  not  duly  strength- 
ened ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  pen,  properly  used, 
is  tne  most  efficient  aid  of  the  memory. 

6.  What  Use  to  make  of  the  Works  of  others,  and  Pla- 
giarism.— It  is  often  a  matter  of  difficulty  to  a  young 
writer  to  determine  whether  or  not  he  should  read  the 
productions  of  others  on  the  subject  which  he  proposes 

O 


314  RHETORIC. 

to  discuss.  If  he  reads  what  others  have  written,  it  tends 
to  give  shape  and  direction  to  his  own  thoughts,  and 
it  may  be  difficult  for  him  to  avoid  the  suspicion  of 
plagiarism.  Plagiarism  is  the  stealing  of  the  expres- 
sions, and  especially  the  written  productions,  of  anoth- 
er person,  and  passing  them  off  as  original.  No  one 
can  be  guilty  of  plagiarism  and  maintain  any  good 
degree  of  Self-respect.  Besides,  the  practice  must 
weaken  a  writer's  confidence  in  his  own  ability. 

At  the  same  time,  thoughts  first  expressed  by  anoth- 
er, facts  related  by  him,  and  even  arguments  presented 
by  him,  may  be  used  without  plagiarism.  Illustrations 
may  suggest  other  similar  illustrations,  arguments  may 
suggest  other  similar  arguments.  There  may  be  an 
original  combination  and  application  of  old  material. 

Generally,  the  best  method  is  to  gather  material  of 
all  kinds  miscellaneously,  before  beginning  to  write, 
making  notes  or  memoranda  of  the  different  thoughts, 
facts,  and  illustrations,  that  occur  to  the  mind. 

7.  The  Third  Rule. — A  thorough  plan  or  skeleton  of  the 
intended  production  should  be  drawn  out,  and  amended  till 

tctory,  and  this  should  be  taken  for  a  guide  in 
completing  the  production. 

The  principal  part  of  the  invention  will  be  accom- 
plished in  selecting  the  subject,  gathering  the  material, 
and  constructing  the  plan.  After  this  it  will  be  com- 
paratively easy  to  complete  the  structure. 

8.  Remarks  on  the  Choice  of  Subjects.  —  The  great 
difficulty  which  young  writers  have  in  choosing  sub- 
jects of  discourse,  arises  generally  from  a  notion  that 
the  facts  and  experiences  with  which  they  have  be- 


CHOICE   OF  SUBJECTS.  315 

come  familiar  are  not  sufficiently  dignified  and  im- 
portant to  serve  as  themes,  and  they  are  therefore  in- 
clined to  select  some  subject  so  remote  from  their  own 
observation  as  not  to  furnish  an  adequate  supply  of 
material.  No  theme  is  too  humble  for  one  who  exer- 
cises his  power  of  observation  and  thought.  Cowper 
wrote  one  of  the  best  poems  in  the  English  language 
on  The  Sofa,  and  called  it,  "The  Task."  Barlow  wrote 
an  interesting  poem  on  "  The  Hasty  Pudding."  To 
a  mind  stored  with  the  requisite  knowledge  it  would 
be  as  easy,  and  probably  more  pleasant,  to  write  an  es- 
say on  a  piece  of  glass,  or  on  an  old  nail,  as  on  virtue, 
or  vice,  or  the  sun. 

Let  no  writer  be  discouraged  at  the  difficulty,  at 
first,  of  gathering  sufficient  material  upon  the  chosen 
theme.  This  is  a  difficulty  to  be  overcome  by  study 
and  practice,  and  has  often  been  keenly  felt  in  early 
efforts  by  those  who  have  afterward  become  prolific 
writers  and  speakers.  The  power  of  continuous 
thought  and  expression  is  to"  be  acquired  only  by 
practice. 

It  is  impossible  to  become  an  able  writer  or  speaker 
without  much  studv. 


316  RHETORIC. 


CHAPTER  II. 

INVENTION   IN   DESCRIPTION. 

IN  the  former  parts  of  this  book  we  have  noticed 
various  kinds  of  composition,  to  some  of  which  we  re- 
fer again,  simply  to  show  how  material  is  gathered  and 
used  in  actual  composition. 

The  easiest  and  most  natural  themes  are  descriptive. 

9.  Definition. — Description  is  a  presentation,  in  lan- 
guage, of  some  object  as  it  exists,  or  is  fancied  to  exist. 
Thus,  for  instance,  a  mountain,  plain,  river,  lake,  isl- 
and, house,  town,  state,  may  be  described.     It  is  neces- 
sary first  to  obtain  full  and  precise  information  about 
the  subject.     This  may  "be  obtained  by  seeking  answers 
to  such  questions  as,  Where  is  it  ?     How  large  ?  — 
considering  all  the  dimensions  applicable,  as  length, 
breadth,  height,  population,  etc.     For  what  is  it  pecul- 
iar ?     Is  it  used  for  any  special  purpose  ?     How  long 
has  it  existed,  or  been  known  ?    Are  there  other  things 
of  the  kind  near  it,  or  suggested  to  the  mind  by  It  ? 
Has  any  great  event  happened  near  it  ? 

10.  Classification  of  Items. — Having  gathered  all  the 
information  within  reach  upon  the  subject,  and  perhaps 
preserved  the  items  in  notes,  or  written  memoranda, 
the  next  thing  requisite  is  to  classify,  or  arrange  the 


DESCRIPTIVE  INVENTION.  317 

items  which  you  wish  to  present,  in  their  proper  order, 
and  then  proceed  to  fill  out  the  description. 

The  mind  soon  acquires  the  power  thus  of  describing 
an  obj  ect  fully  and  vividly.  Many  men  travel  much  and 
learn  little ;  they  read  much  and  remember*  little  ;  all 
for  the  want  of  methodically  arranging  the  separate 
items  which  they  see,  in  their  proper  relations. 

11.  An  Example  of  Descriptive  Invention. — Suppose, 
for  instance,  that  it  was  proposed  to  write  a  description 
of  Greece.  The  first  business  would  be  to  collect  in- 
formation and  thoughts,  some  of  which  would  be  al- 
reacjy  in  the  mind,  and  some  of  which  would  be  found 
there  only  partially  or  incompletely.  These  thoughts 
should  be  jotted  down  on  a  piece  of  paper,' preparatory 
to  being  wrought  into  an  outline,  or  frame-work,  and 
might  present  some  such  shape  as  this. 

Greece  was  a  small  country. 

It  was  mostly  a  group  of  islands  and  a  narrow  coast. 

What  were  the  main  divisions  ? 

Its  climate  was  temperate  but  various. 

Mountains,  rivers,  etc. 

Were  the  people  of  one  race  ? 

Their  primitive  condition — barbarous. 

Was  Greece  one  nation  ? 

Wars — foreign — intestine. 

Slaves. 

Their  language,  literature. 

Philosophers — Socrates,  Plato,  Aristotle. 

Military  men — Leonidas,  Alcibiades,  etc. 

Orators — Demosthenes. 

Spartan  character. 

Modern  Greece,  etc. 

These  thoughts  may  now  be  systematically  ar- 
ranged, in  an  outline,  thus  : 

1.  The  size  and  boundaries  of  Greece. 

2.  Peculiar  geographical  character  and  climate. 


318  It  HE  TO  It  ir. 

3.  Character  of  the  people  in  earliest  times. 

4 .  II  omogeneity  of  people. 

5.  Divisions  of  people. 

6.  Their  language  and  literature. 

7.  Their  high  culture,  philosophers,  etc. 

8.  Their^  character  in  war. 

9.  Modern  Greece. 

Then  a  description  can  be  constructed.  In  uniting 
the  parts,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  show  the  seams 
too  much,  but  by  the  use  of  connecting  words  and 
thoughts,  let  all  be  welded  together  into  one  symmet- 
rical production.  Sometimes,  however,  the  transition 
between  two  thoughts  is  so  abrupt  that  a  new  para- 
graph should  be  made.  The  final  shape  of  the  descrip  - 
tion  might  be  something  like  this : 

(1.)  Greece  is  a  name  given  to  a  small  country  in  the  south-eastern 
part  of  Europe,  near  Asia  Minor,  famous  in  ancient  history.  Its 
boundaries  have  not  been  always  the  same,  but  it  may  properly  be 
said  to  include  the  whole  of  that  peninsula  between  the  Euxine  and 
the  Adriatic  seas,  and  the  islands  in  the  immediate  vicinity. 

(2.)  It  is,  to  a  great  extent,  a  mountainous  country,  and  is  well 
watered  by  small  rivers.  The  coast  is  lined  with  good  harbors,  and 
the  people  living  in  such  a  country  must  always  have  been  practiced 
in  navigation.  The  climate,  too,  is  delightful,  neither  excessively  hot 
nor  cold,  and  the  soil  is  very  productive. 

(3.)  In  the  earliest  time-  the  people  are  said  to  have  been  barba- 
rous, (4. )  but  they  all  spoke  one  language,  or  different  dialects  of  one 
language,  and  became  one  of  the  most  highly  c-i\  ilized  peoples  of  an- 
tiquity. (.">.)  It  is  unfortunate,  however,  that  they  were  divided  into 
tribes  or  sections,  sometimes  inten>ely  hostile  to  each  other.  They 
never,  in  fact,  became  one  nation  till  their  liberties  were  hopelessly 
lost 

(0.)  The  ancient  Greeks  were  famous  for  their  literature.  Their 
language  was  rich  and  beautiful,  and  they  have  furnished  to  the  world 
many  of  the  ablest  philosophers  and  orators.  We  need  but  mention 
Socrates,  the  martyr.  1'latoand  Aristotle,  as  philosophers,  and  Demos- 
thenes, the  most  famous  of  orators. 

(7.)  This  people,  though  dwelling  in  so  small  a  country,  maintained 
themselves  against  all  foes  for  many  centuries,  for  they  were  extraor- 
dinarily brave  and  successful  in  war. 


s  /.v 

Modern  Greece  is  an  interesting  country.  The  people  are  not  so 
strong  and  remarkable  as  in  ancient  times,  but  they  speak  a  similar 
language,  and  are  very  proud  of  the  fame  of  their  ancestors.  All  the 
civilized  world  would  rejoice  to  see  them  equal  and  surpass,  if  possi- 
ble, ancient  Greece  in  its  palmiest  days. 

We  give  this  brief  and  simple  specimen  to  show  the 
process  of  Invention.  Its  laws  are  simple  and  uniform. 

12.  Another  Statement  of  the  Process  of  Invention. — 
First  there  must  be  a  therne,  around  which  thoughts 
will  cluster.     Second,  the  thoughts  must  be  gathered. 
If  already  in  the  mind,  they  must  be  collated  accord- 
ing to  the  laws  of  association,  by  which  the  memory 
works.     If  not  all  there,  then  the  few  thoughts  which 
led  to  the  selection  of  the  theme  must  show  the  writer 
where  to  go,  or  what  to  do,  to  collect  thoughts.  •  Com- 
parisons, metaphors,  allusions,  and  all  other  figures  of 
speech  arising,  must  be  noticed  ;  if  counted  worthy  or 
appropriate,  they  should  be  used.     If  not,  let  them  be 
rejected. 

13.  Importance  of  Thoroughness  in  acquiring  Infor- 
mation.— It  is  well  to  use  the  pen  freely  in  gathering 
information.     Sometimes  a  good   writer  will  spend 
hours,  ancl  days,  and  even  weeks,  in  collecting  thoughts 
and  illustrations  on  a  subject,  and  then  spend  hours  in 
arranging  them  into  an  outline,  and  finally  write  out 
the  essay,  or  oration,  or  book,  in  a  much  shorter  time 
than  was  spent  collecting  the  material. 

The  great  fault  of  young  writers  is  that  they  do  not 
learn  to  invent.  They  try  to  write  or  speak,  with  noth- 
ing to  speak  or  write  about.  Gather  abundant  ma^e- 
rial  first.  Do  not  say  that  this  is  impossible.  It  is 
not  so. 


320  RHETORIC. 

Would  you  write  about  the  town  or  city  in  which 
you  reside  ?  Take  a  note-book  and  travel  about  the 
town,  and  make  memoranda  of  what  you  see.  Read 
what  others  have  written  about  it,  if  you  wish  to.  Seek 
comparisons,  metaphors,  etc.,  that  you  can  appropri- 
ately use.  You  will  probably  surprise  yourself,  and 
your  friends,  by  the  abundance  and  accuracy  of  your 
information. 

14.  Value  of  Descrip'  —Descriptions  are 
the  kind  of  productions  upon  which  the  young  should 
write,  until  they  acquire  facility  in  the  construction  of 
outlines,  and  in  filling  them  up.     Sometimes  speeches, 
dialogues,  and  other  kinds  of  composition  can  be  in- 
troduced, in  the  midst  of  descriptions. 

15.  Common  Themes  may  be  chosen. — In  the  selection 
of  Themes  it  would  be  well  not  to  slight  common  sub- 
jects near  at  hand.     An  old  oak  tree,  or  any  other 
particular  tree  ;  a  street,  or  square,  or  hotel,  or  factory, 
in  the  place  where  you  live,  would  richly  repay  ex- 
amination ;  and  of  course  a  long  and  minute  exami- 
nation must  precede  a  description.     Why  do  young 
writers,  or  indeed  any  but  the  best-informed  minds, 
find  it  so  difficult  to  describe  the  ocean,  spring,  sum- 
mer, etc.,  the  sun,  the  starry  heavens  ?     It  is  because 
they  know  so  little  about  them.     Why  not  select  sub- 
jects that  they  do  understand?     No  teacher  of  youth 
can  fail  to  have  noticed  many  aspiring  young  men  who 
were  very  anxious  to  study  elocution  before  they  had 
ajy  thing  to  speak  about,  and  rhetoric,  without  laying 
the  proper  foundation. 

16.  Opinions  of  Bacon  upon  the  proper  Time  to  study 


WHEN  SHOULD   RHETORIC  BE  STUDIED.  321 

Rhetoric. — Lord  Bacon,  in  his  "Advancement  of  Learn- 
ing" Book  I.,  says:  "Scholars  in  universities  come 
too  soon  and  too  unripe  to  logic  and  rhetoric-,  arts  fitter 
for  graduates  than  children  and  novices ;  for  these  two, 
rightly  taken,  are  the  gravest  of  sciences,  being  the  art 
}f  arts ;  the  one  for  judgment,  the  other  for  ornament ; 
and  they  be  the  rules  and  directions  how  to  set  forth  and 
dispose  matter,  and  therefore  for  minds  empty  and  un- 
fraught  with  matter,  and  which  have  not  gathered  that 
which  Cicjro  calleth  sylva  and  supellex,  stuff  and  va- 
riety, to  begin  with  those  arts  (as  if  one  should  learn  to 
weigh,  or  to  measure,  or  to  paint  the  wind),  doth  work 
but  this  effect,  that  the  wisdom  of  those  arts,  which  is 
great  and  universal,  is  almost  made  contemptible,  and 
is  degenerated  into  childish  sophistry  and  ridiculous 
affectation." 

It  does  not  follow  that  young  pupils  should  not  be 
trained  to  write  and  speak.  It  is  an  idle  theory,  and 
pernicious  in  its  effects,  to  postpone  all  study  of  rhet- 
oric till  the  conclusion  of  education — but  early  should 
•all  learn  the  fact,  that  the  collection  of  information,  and 
of  thought,  is  the  greatest  and  most  essential  work  of  a 
writer  and  speaker. 

17.  Themes  in  Description. — For  practical  exercise 
we  subjoin  a' list  of  subjects  upon  whyjh  students  may 
exercise  their  ingenuity,  and  would  recommend  that 
each  person  collect  information  and  classify  it  in  an 
outline  or  sketch,  and  complete  an  essay  on  at  least 
two  of  the  following  themes.  It  would  be  well  to 
write  on  all  of  them. 

1.  A  Description  of  my  Native  State. 
O2 


2.  The  Great  American  Desert. 

3.  The  Mississippi  Valley. 

4.  The  Falls  of  Niagara. 

5.  The  White  Mountains. 

6.  The  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

7.  Relics  of  Pre-historic  Men  in  America. 

8.  Oak  Trees. 

9.  The  City  of  Washington. 

10.  The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 

11.  The  largest  Railway  in  the  Country. 

12.  The  Bible. 

13.  A  Hive  of  Honey-bees. 

14.  Beavers  and  their  Customs. 

15.  Ancient  Babylon. 

16.  A  Ship  of  War. 

17.  The  Steam  Engine. 

18.  The  Pyramids. 

19.  The  Seven  Wonders  of  the  Ancient  World. 


/.V    CASSATION.  323 


CHAPTER  III. 

INVENTION  IN  NARRATIONS. 

18.  Definition.  —  NARRATIONS  embrace  historical 
writings  of  every  grade.     The  highest  talent  has  found 
full  scope  in  this  kind  of  writing.     It  naturally  follows, 
if  indeed  it  does  not  accompany,  Descriptions.  *  Hav- 
ing described  an  object  as  it  is  at  one  moment,  it  is 
natural  to  describe  the  changes  which  it  undergoes. 

Narration  deals  principally  with  persons,  though  it 
embraces  only  actions  and  things, 

19.  Laws  vf  Invention  applicable,  to  Narrations. — The 
laws  of  Invention  with  reference  to  Narration  are,  in 
principle,  precisely  the  same  as  with  reference  to  De- 
scription.    In  both,  great  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
dwell  too  much  on  unimportant  facts  or  objects,  and  not 
to  neglect  what  is  really  essential.     If  a  painter  en- 
deavors to  crowd  too  much  on  the  canvas,  he  confuses 
the  attention  and  spoils  the  picture.     Great  skill  can 
be  acquired  by  practice  in  making  a  narrative  vivid. 

20.  Some  Practical  Directions. — It  is  a  profitable  ex- 
ercise to  narrate  occurrences  in  one's  own  history  or 
under  his  own  observation.     Has  the  school  with  which 
he  is  connected  had  no  history  ?     Could  he  not  learn 
a  series  of  facts  about  it,  by  study,  that  would  be  in- 


324  RHETORIC. 

teresting  to  all?  Why  not  write  the  history  of  the 
town  for  just  ten  years  ?  It  is  well  to  read  the  history 
of  some  personage,  take  abundant  notes,  and  then  write 
out  a  sketch  without  once  consulting  the  book  during 
the  writing. 

In  a  previous  part  of  the  book  we  have  spoken  of 
the  severe  labor  of  some  historians  in  gathering  ma- 
terial and  in  forming  their  style.  Some  of  them  have 
spent  many  years,  and  many  thousands  of  dollars,  in 
what  may  be  called  the  process  of  Invention — in  find- 
ing, not  making,  the  information,  and  in  originating 
and  preparing  the  illustrations  which  they  employed. 
The  <j>  of  material  is  the  most  important  part  of 

the  work  of  a  writer  or  speaker. 

In  arranging  the  material  he  may  follow  the  chrono- 
logical order  of  events,  if  he  pleases,  or  he  may  arrange 
what  he  has  to  say  so  as  to  prove  some  one  principle, 
and  neglect  all  the  facts  that  do  not  apply  to  that,  or 
he  may  select  some  one  prominent  character  and  make 
all  the  events  cluster  about  him. 

2 1 .  A  Specimen  of  In*  'on  from  Mac- 

aulay. — As  a  specimen  of  life-like  narrative,  we  give  a 
brief  extract  from  Macaulay,  in  which  he  commences 
the  relation  of  the  great  trial  of  Lord  Hastings.  We 
have  no  means  of  knowing  whether  he  previously 
formed  an  outline  of  this  narrative  or  not,  but  if  not 
written,  it  must  have  existed  in  his  mind,  in  some  such 
form  as  this: 

1.  The  place.     What  had  happened  before  in  this  great  hall. 

2.  Surrounding  circumstances — military  pomp — the  peers — royal- 
ty, etc. 

3.  The  galleries — ladies — queen,  etc. 


EXAMPLE  FROM  MACAULAT.  325 

4.  How  Hastings  looked— little  man — a  great  man,  etc. 

5.  The  trial.     Burke's  speech— its  effect.     The  impeachment. 

We  give  now  a  few  paragraphs  of  Lord  Macaulay's 
filling  out  of  this  sketch. 

"  The  place  was  worthy  of  such  a  trial.  It  was  the  great  hall  of 
William  Rufus ;  the  hall  which  had  resounded  with  acclamations  at 
the  inauguration  of  thirty  kings  ;  the  hall  which  had  witnessed  the  just 
sentence  of  Bacon,  and  the  just  absolution  of  Somers  ;  the  hall  where 
the  eloquence  of  Stafford  had  for  a  moment  awed  and  melted  a  vic- 
torious party  inflamed  with  a  just  resentment ;  the  hall  where  Charles 
had  confronted  the  high  court  of  justice  with  the  placid  courage  which 
has  half  redeemed  his  fame. 

"  Neither  military  nor  civil  pomp  was  wanting.  The  avenues  were 
lined  with  grenadiers.  The  streets  were  kept  clear  by  cavalry.  The 
peers,  robed  in  gold  and  ermine,  were  marshalled  by  the  heralds  under 
the  garter  king-at-arms.  The  judges  in  their  vestments  of  state,  at- 
tended to  give  advice  on  points  of  law.  Near  a  hundred  and  seventy 
lords,  three-fourths  of  the  upper  house,  as  the  upper  house  then  was, 
walked  in  solemn  order  from  their  usual  place  of  assembling  to  the 
tribunal.  *  *  *  * 

44  The  gray  old  walls  were  hung  with  scarlet.  The  long  galleries 
were  crowded  by  such  an  audience  as  has  rarely  excited  the  fears  or 
the  emulation  of  an  orator.  There  were  gathered  together  from  all 
parts  of  a  great,  free,  enlightened,  and  prosperous  realm,  grace  and 
female  loveliness,  wit  and  learning,  the  representatives  of  every  science 
and  of  every  art.  There  were  seated  around  the  queen  the  fair-haired 
daughters  of  the  house  of  Brunswick." 

Then  follows  a  long  description  of  Reynolds  the 
painter,  and  Parr  the  classical  scholar,  and  several 
other  noted  personages  who  were  present  —  all  of 
which  shows  the  wondrous  amount  of  information 
which  Macaulay  stored  up  on  a  subject  before  he  be- 
gan to  write  about  it.  He  then  adds : 

"The  sergeants  made  proclamation.  Hastings  advanced  to  the 
bar  and  bent  his  knee.  The  culprit  was  indeed  not  unworthy  of  that 
great  presence.  He  had  ruled  an  extensive  and  populous  country,  had 
made  laws  and  treaties,  had  sent  forth  armies,  had  set  up  and  pulled 
down  princes.  And  in  his  high  place  he  had  so  borne  himself  that  all 


RHETORIC. 

had  feared  him,  that  most  had  loved  him,  and  hatred  itself  could  deny 
him  no  title  to  glory,  except  virtue.  He  looked  like  a  great  man,  and 
not  like  a  bad  man.  A  person  small  and  emaciated,  yet  deriving  dig- 
nity from  a  carriage  which,  while  it  indicated  deference  to  the  court, 
indicated  also  habitual  self-possession  and  self-respect ;  a  high  and  in- 
tellectual forehead,  a  brow  pensive,  but  not  gloomy,  a  mouth  of  in- 
flexible decision,  a  face  pale  and  worn,  but  serene,  on  which  was  writ- 
ten, as  legibly  as  under  the  great  picture  in  the  council-chamber,  '  a 
mind  calm  amid  difficulties. '  Such  was  the  aspect  with  which  the  great 
proconsul  presented  himself  to  the  judges. 

"  The  charges  and  the  answers  of  Hastings  were  first  read.  This 
ceremony  occupied  two  whole  days,  and  was  rendered  less  tedious 
than  it  otherwise  would  have  been  by  the  silver  voice  and  just  empha- 
sis of  Cowper,  the  clerk  of  the  court,  a  near  relative  of  the  amiublc 
poet. 

4 *  On  the  third  day  Burke  rose." 

After  a  long  description  of  his  speech  and  its  effects, 
the  narrative  thus  closes: 

"  At  length  the  orator  concluded.  Raising  his  voice  till  the  old 
arches  of  Irish  oak  resounded,  'Therefore,'  said  he,  'hath  it  with 
all  confidence  been  ordered  by  the  Commons  of  Great  Britain,  that  I 
impeach  Warren  Hastings  of  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors ;  I  im- 
peach him  in  the  name  of  the  Commons  House  of  Parliament,  whose 
trn-t  he  has  betrayed.  I  impeach  him  in  the  name  of  the  English 
nation,  whose  ancient  honors  he  has  sullied.  I  impeach  him  in  the 
name  of  the  people  of  India,  whose  rights  he  has  trodden  under  foot, 
and  whose  country  he  has  turned  into  a  desert.  Lastly,  in  the  name 
of  human  nature  itself,  in  the  name  of  both  sexes,  in  the  name  of 
:^e,  in  the  name  of  every  rank,  I  impeach  the  common  enemy 
and  oppressor  of  all" 

22.  Remarks  on  the  above  Example. — In  examining 
carefully  this,  one  of  the  most  impressive  narratives  in 
the  language,  observe  the  fullness  of  information  gar- 
nered up  by  the  historian.  lie  weaves  in  numerous 
little  incidents  and  facts,  and  makes  them  all  tell. 
How  much  he  knows  about  the  old  hall!  All  who 
were  present,  their  previous  lives,  the  size  of  the  gal- 
leries, the  dress  of  the  ladies,  the  appearance  of  the 


DR.    FRA.SKL1X**    I'll  ACTIVE.  327 

motto  under  one  of  his  pictures  at  Calcutta,  and  the 
words  of  Burke  in  making  the  impeachment — nothing 
escaped  his  eye}  and  all  are  marshalled  in  their  proper 
order.  Suppose  he  had  undertaken  to  write  a  de- 
scription, without  first  gathering  the  material  —  he 
would  have  done  as  feeble  writers  generally  do,  and 
succeeded  no  better. 

23.  The  Practice  of  Dr.  Franklin.  —  Dr.  Benjamin 
Franklin  made  himself  a  correct  and  eloquent  and 
prolific  writer  by  following  the  course  recommended 
above.  In  a  letter  dated  Nov.  2, 1789,  written  to  Ben- 
jamin Vaughan,  he  gives  the  following  advice  : 

"  What  I  would  therefore  recommend  to  you  is, 
that  before  you  sit  down  to  write  on  any  subject  you 
would  spend  some  days  in  considering  it,  putting  down 
at  the  same  time,  in  short  hints,  every  thought  which 
occurs  to  you  as  proper  to  make  a  part  of  your  in- 
tended piece.  When  you  have  thus  obtained  a  col- 
lection of  the  thoughts,  examine  them  carefully  with 
this  view,  to  find  which  of  them  is  properest  to  be 
presented  first  to  the  mind  of  the  reader,  that  he,  being 
possessed  of  that,  may  be  better  disposed  to  receive 
what  you  intend  for  the  second  ;  and  thus  I  would  have 
you  put  a  figure  before  each  thought  to  mark  its  future 
place  in  your  composition.  For  so  every  preceding 
composition  preparing  the  mind  for  that  which'  is  to 
follow,  and  the  reader  often  anticipating  it,  he  proceeds 
with  ease  and  pleasure  and  approbation,  as  seeming 
continually  to  meet  his  own  thoughts.  In  this  mode 
you  have  a  chance  for  a  perfect  production  ;  because, 
the  mind  attending  first  to  the  sentiments  alone,  next 


328  RHETORIC. 

to  the  method  alone,  each  part  is  likely  to  "be  better 
performed,  and,  I  think,  too,  in  less  time." 

24.  Subjects  for  Exercise. — We  subjoin  a  list  of  sub- 
jects for  practice  in  narrative. 

1.  The  Discovery  of  America  by  Columbus. 

2.  The  Landing  of  the  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth. 

3.  The  Detection,  Trial,  and  Execution  of  Major 
Andre.  , 

4.  The  Passage  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, in  1776. 

5 .  The  Battle  of  Waterloo. 

6.  The  Death  and  Funeral  of  Abraham  Lincoln. 

7.  The  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill. 

8.  The  Burning  of  Moscow. 

9.  The  Discussion  between  Hayne  and  Webster 
in  the  American  Senate. 

10.  The  Salem  Witchcraft. 

11.  The  Battle  of  New  Orleans. 


ABSTRACT  SUBJECTS.  329 


CHAPTER  IY. 

INVENTION  IN  ABSTRACT  SUBJECTS. 

25.  Difficulty  in  the  Investigation  of  Abstract  Subjects. 
— WHEN  we  pass  from  subjects  that  may  be  denomi- 
nated external,  the  facts  concerning  which  are  obtained 
by  an  exercise  of  the  senses,  to  those  of  a  purely  men- 
tal character,  we  enter  a  range  of  thought  which  is  de- 
veloped later  in  life,  and  not  very  largely,  except  in 
those  who  acquire  a  liberal  education,  either  by  special 
effort  or  as  the  result  of  their  occupation. 

26.  ^Requisites  for  Invention  on  such  Subjects.  —  The 
great  requisite  is  close  and  connected  thought  upon 
the  subject ;  and  the  proper  methods  of  thought  are 
taught,  not  in  a  Rhetoric,  but  in  the  sciences  respect- 
ively that  embrace  the  subject.     How  could  one  write 
or  speak  extensively  or  vigorously  on  memory,  men- 
tal association,  volition,  or  any  such  theme,  who  had 
not  studied  Mental  Philosophy  ?    How  could  one  treat 
in  a  masterly  manner  such  a  subject  as  electricity,  me- 
chanical motion,  or  machinery,  who  had  not  studied 
Natural  Philosophy  ?     How  could  one  write  or  speak 
ably  upon  food,  poisons,  health,  disease,  diet,  who  had 
not  investigated  Physiology  ?     How  could  one  write 
an  able  dissertation  on  insanity,  or  idiocy,  who  did 


330  if  lit:  TO  inc. 

not  understand  both  Physiology  and  Mental  Philoso- 
phy ?  Ignorance  is  the  great  foe  of  efficiency.  Abun- 
dant knowledge  is  the  exhaustless  fountain  of  a  good 
speaker  or  writer.  That  the  fountain  should  be  ex- 
haustless, streams  must  run  inward  as  well  as  outward. 
Theje  must  be  faithful,  constant  industr}-.  Invention 
can  not  create  raw  material,  and  raw  material  is  always 
used  up  by  actual  labor. 

27.  More  than  Information  necessary. — Still  there  are 
some  men,  encyclopaediac  in  information,  who  can  not 
command  their  resources  and  put  their  information 
into  shape,  and  this  is  often  the  result  of  not  knowing 
how  to  use  information,  so  as  to  bring  it  to  bear  on  an 
end  in  view. 

28.  Practical  Directions. — In  considering  a  subject, 
it  is  well  to  inquire  first,  ichere  it  resides,  how  far  it  ex- 
tends, how  long  it  has  existed.     Then,  how  great  is  its 
power.     Is  it  useful   or  pernicious  ?     If  both,  when 
and  why  is  it  the  one,  and  when  and  why  the  other  ? 
Is  it  often  confounded  with  some  other  subject  ?     If 
so,  what,  and  why,  and  how  ?     Has  it  any  special  ap- 
plication to  any  end  you  have  now  in  view  ?     Is  it 
connected  with  human  conduct?     Can  you  make  it 
appear  attractive,  or  disagreeable,  by  any  comparisons 
or  illustrations?     Is  there  any  method  by  which  you 
can  in  the  prosecution  of  the  subject  appeal  to  the  pas- 
sions of  your  hearers? 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  many  questions  that  a 
writer  may  bear  in  mind  when  he  is  collecting  informa- 
tion and  thoughts,  and  arranging  them,  preparatory  to 
the  construction  of  his  production. 


331 

29.  Example.  —  Let  the  abstract  theme,  patriotism, 
for  instance,  be  selected  as  the  subject  of  an  essay,  and 
examined  according  %to  the  above  questions,  and  an 
outline  like  the  following  could  be  constructed. 

PATRIOTISM. 

Patriotism,  or  the  love  of  one's  own  country,  is  nearly  if  not  quite 
a  universal  passion. 

It  has  been  manifested  from  the  earliest  times  [Hebrews,  Grecians, 
Romans,  French,  Swiss,  English,  Americans — or  any  others]. 

Its  power,  as  evinced  in  war,  in  diplomacy.  Even  among  savages. 
[Look  up  some  instances  in  history  to  illustrate  this.] 

Its  good  effects  in  leading  every  nation  to  try  to  excel. 

Show  some  bad  effects  when  not  regulated.  [Caesar  crossing  the 
Rubicon.  Napoleon's  campaigns  in  Russia  and  Egypt.] 

True  patriotism  should  not  be  confounded  with  ambition,  nor  with 
attempt  to  exalt  a  part  of  a  nation  over  other  parts.  Speak  of  re- 
bellion and  civil  war. 

Compare  it  to  love  for  members  of  the  same  family — to  coherence 
of  the  parts  of  one  structure  together,  as  of  a  house — to  the  union 
between  different  organs  of  the  same  body — to  the  blood  circulating 
through  the  body  giving  life  to  the  whole,  etc. 

Refer  to  monuments  erected  to  honor  brave  patriots  and  useful 
men  and  women,  by  nations.  Find  some,  and  give  the  inscriptions  on 
them. 

Show  how  one  may  feel  and  manifest  patriotism  in  peace,  as  well 
as  in  war.  Was  Franklin  a  patriot  ?  Was  Howard  a  patriot  ?  etc. 

Close  with  an  application  of  the  subject  to  present  circumstances. 

30.  The  Writer  should  invent  new  Modes  in  the  Pre- 
sentation of  Subjects. — It  is  not  well  for  a  writer  or 
speaker  to  confine  himself  to  any  model  in  forming  a 
plan  of  hjs  production.     But  the  above  will   show 
that  the  •  questions  recommended  will  put  the  mind 
upon  a  track  that  will  be  likely  to  lead  to  a  thorough 
treatment  of  a  theme. 

31.  A  List  of  Subjects  for  Practice. — We  subjoin  a 
brief  list  of  abstract  subjects  in  which  the  student  can 


332  RHETORIC. 

exercise  his  powers  of  invention.  In  all  cases  let  a 
full  outline  be  prepared,  and  give  much  attention  to 
the  collection  of  information  an4  illustrations. 

1.  The  Power  and  Abuses  of  Faith. 

2.  The  Effects  of  Labor. 

3.  A  Republican  Form  of  Government. 

4.  The  Invention  and  Use  of  Steam-power. 

5.  Moral  Courage. 

6.  The  English  Language. 

7.  The  Magnetic  Telegraph. 

8.  The  Missionary  Enterprise. 

9.  The  Power  of  Music. 

10.  The  Effects  of  War. 

11.  Ancient  and  Modern  Oratory. 

12.  The  Importance  of  Restraining  the  Passions. 

13.  Mental  Refinement. 

14.  Radicalism. 

15.  Value  of  Health. 

16.  Power  of  Heat 

17.  Military  Ambition. 

18.  Enthusiasm. 


INVENTION  IN  DISCUSSIONS.  333 


CHAPTER  V. 

INVENTION  IN  DISCUSSIONS. 

32.  Prevalence  of  Discussions. — MUCH  of  the  writing 
and  speaking  of  men  in  actual  life  is  argumentative, 
and  a  large  part  of  this  is  discussion  in  courts,  or  de- 
liberative or  legislative  bodies.     Even  when  an  ad- 
dress is  made,  or  a  sermon  is  preached,  very  frequently 
it  is  argumentative,  attempting  to  prove  what  is  known 
to  be  disputed,  and  it  partakes,  therefore,  of  the  charac- 
ter of  a  discussion,  in  which  one  party  only  is  present. 
It  becomes  a  matter  of  great  importance  to  know  how 
most  efficiently  to  investigate  a  subject  upon  which 
diverse  opinions  are  entertained. 

33.  The  First  Requisite  in  a  Discussion. — In  a  discus- 
sion, the  first  requisite  is  a  clear  understanding  of  the 
question  at  issue.     Many  questions  are  so  loosely  and 
ambiguously  stated  that  no  thorough   discussion  of 
them  is  possible.     Disputants,  even  defending  the  same 
side,  are  not  considering  the  same  subject,'  and  may  be 
diametrically  opposed  to  each  other.     When  duty  re- 
quires the  discussion  of  any  such  proposition,  an  effort 
should  be  made  to  show  the  ambiguity  or  incoherency 
of  the  theme,  and  to  put  it  into  definite  shape,  and  de- 
termine just  what  you  propose  to  affirm,  and  what  you 


334  RHETORIC. 

propose  to  deny.  A  critically  correct  use  of  language 
is  essential  to  the  proper  statement  and  enforcement 
of  truth. 

3-i.  Discussions  nevertheless  possible,  wiik  a  clear 
understanding  of  Terms.  —  Some  questions  are  an- 
swered by  strict  definition,  but  there  are  many  ques- 
tions upon  which  a  diversity  of  opinion  exists,  and 
upon  which  there  may  be  profitable  discussion  even 
though  both  parties  understand  the  terms  in  the  same 
sense. 

35.  Example.  —  Suppose,  for  instance,  the  question 
arises,  as  it  often  has  before  legislative,  and  judicial, 
and  military  bodies:  Shall  duelling  be  regarded  as 
murder  ?  It  is  necessary  first  to  define  duelling  ac- 
curately, so  as  to  distinguish  it  from  ordinary  quar- 
relling, even  though  with  an  intention  to  kill ;  from 
assault  and  battery ;  from  a  malicious  plotting  secretly 
to  take  the  life  of  another;  and  the  element  of  the 
voluntary  exposure  of  both  parties  to  death  must  not 
be  left  out  of  account.  Then  murder  must  be  defined 
with  equal  care.  If  both  parties  can  agree  on  the 
definitions,  it  is  well ;  if  not,  each  party  must  endeavor 
to  show  that  his  view  of  the  meaning  of  the  question 
is  correct,  and  carry  conviction  on  that  point  to  his 
hearers,  if  possible.  Should  an  agreement  exist  on 
the  meaning  of  the  terms,  there  would  still  be  room, 
on  this  subject,  for  a  discussion  that  would  involve 
many  nice  and  profound  investigations  in  morals, 
politics,  and  religion. 

It  is  the  province  of  logic,  not  of  rhetoric,  to  clas- 
sify the  kinds  of  argumentation.  To  find  or  invent 


RULES    TO   BE    OBSERVED.  335 

arguments,  no  rule  can  be  given.  It  is  the  product 
of  pure  thought.  An  understanding  of  the  subject 
implies  their  existence. 

36.  The  Second  Rule  in  Discussions.  —  The  second 
rule  in  discussion  is  to  endeavor  to  survey,  as  widely 
and  thoroughly  as  possible,  all  the  arguments  you  can 
command  on  the  question,  both  for  and  against  the 
proposition  which  you  intend  to  maintain,  before  you 
construct  your  own  brief,  or  order  of  argumentation. 

Feeble  reasoners  plunge  into  a  discussion  before 
they  have  surveyed  the  other  side.  The  consequence 
is  that  they  are  often  surprised  and  confounded  and 
overwhelmed  by  opposition,  which,  if  they  had  an- 
ticipated it  and  thoroughly  surveyed  it,  might  easily 
have  been  removed.  It  would  be  well  even  to  make 
out  an  outline  of  the  arguments  on  both  sides  of  the 
question,  and  then  espouse  and  defend  what  you  know 
to  be  right. 

37.  The  Third  Rule.  —  It  is  proper  to  take  advan- 
tage of  passions,  temperaments,  circumstances,  and 
even  prejudices,  to  conciliate  the  favor  of  opponents, 
and  to  enlist  the  attention  of  the  audience,  provided 
that  no  falsehood  be  maintained. 

Arguments,  therefore,  should  be  skillfully  and  ar- 
tistically arranged.  If  there  is  some  one  consideration 
that,  though  true  and  weighty,  your  audience  will  not 
listen  to,  or  duly  examine,  keep  it  back  till  you  have 
conciliated  their  approval.  If  there  is  a  feeble  argu- 
ment that  nevertheless  has  here  superior  influence, 
bring  it  into  the  foreground. 

In  the  general,  strong  arguments  should  be  used 


336  RHETORIC. 

first,  and  the  very  strongest  perhaps  last,  to  leave  a 
profound  impression  upon  the  mind. 

If  questionable  arguments  are  to  be  employed,  let 
it  be  distinctly  understood  that  the  conclusion  is  not 
to  be  based  on  them,  so  that,  if  refuted,  the  cause  is 
not  lost 

38.  The  Burden  of  Proof.  —  In  all  practical  discus- 
sions it  is  well  primarily  to  determine  with  which  side  , 
"the  burden  of  proof"  lies.  If  a  change  in  action  is 
advocated,  the  burden  of  proof,  or  the  necessity  of 
making  out  his  case,  lies  with  the  affirmative ;  the  con- 
testant has  nothing  to  prove  but  the  falsity  or  weak- 
ness of  the  arguments  adduced  in  favor  of  change. 
Every  man  is  to  be  esteemed  innocent  till  shown  to 
be  guilty.  The  burden  of  proof  is  with  the  complain- 
ant No  one  should  allow  himself  to  be  required  to 
prove  what  need  not  be  proved  to  sustain  his  cause. 

39.  Allowance  to  Opponents. — In  refutation,  a  truly 
strong  reasoner,  who  is  confident  of  right,  and  confi- 
dent of  a  mastery  of  his  subject,  can  afford  to  allow 
all  that  is  undeniably  true  in  the  statements  of  his  op- 
ponent ;  but  he  will  carefully  separate  the  true  from 
the  false,  and  show  that  the  acknowledgment  of  the 
one  does  not  carry  with  it  the  other. 

40.  Personal  Abuse. — The  personal  abuse  of  an  op- 
ponent, however  common  in  feeble  reasoners,  and  how- 
ever many  examples  of  it  may  be  found  even  of  a 
high  character,  should  not  be  resorted  to.     It  almost 
always  betrays  a  want  of  confidence  in  the  righteous- 
ness of  a  cause,  and  seldom  aids  in  producing  convic- 
tion.    The  habit  of  offensive  personalities  in  debate 


EXAMPLE.  337 

almost  invariably  weakens  the  influence  of  an  ora- 
tor. 

41.  Example  of  Invention  in  Discussion. — To  show 
how  the  mind  works  in  inventing  argumentation  let 
us  look  at  an  actual  instance,  instead  of  undertaking  a 
description  of  the  theory.  In  1829  a  debate  arose  in 
the  United  States  Senate,  on  a  subject  upon  which 
opinions  seemed  to  be  nearly  equally  divided,  and 
which  was  postponed  without  decision,  after  calling 
forth  several  able  speeches.  Let  us  notice  briefly  how 
the  senators  "  invented  "  or  formed  and  arranged  their 
arguments  on  this  occasion.  The  question  in  dispute 
was,  whether  a  committee  should  "  inquire  into  the 
expediency  of  limiting  for  a  period  the  sales  of  public 
lands  to  such  as  had  already  been  offered  for  sale,  and 
of  abolishing  the  oflice  of  surveyor-general."  Al- 
though nearly  half  of  the  members  participated  in  the 
discussion,  and  many  days  were  spent  upon  it,  the 
chief  interest  centres  in  the  speeches  of  Senator  Kob- 
ert  Y.  Hayne  of  South  Carolina,  and  Senator  Daniel 
Webster  of  Massachusetts.  Mr.  Hayne  advocated  the 
proposed  resolution  by  asserting,  (1.)  The  importance 
of  the  public  land  question — it  deserved  investigation  ; 
(2.)  There  were  two  great  parties  in  the  country  on  the 
subject — one  favoring  giving  lands  to  actual  settlers, 
and  the  other  desiring  to  make  money  by  their  sale, 
and  this  party  oppressed  actual  settlers ;  (3.)  The  na- 
tion had  been  too  niggardly  and  oppressive  to  settlers 
hitherto,  and  especially  the  Northern  States  were  open 
to  this  charge ;  (4.)  Obtaining  a  fund  by  the  sale  of 
lands  would  lead  to  extravagance  and  corruption  ;  (5.) 

P 


338  RHETORIC. 

Selling  the  public  lands  would  consolidate  the  States 
too  much  and  destroy  the  independence  of  the  sepa- 
rate States  ;  (6.)  Finally,  some  way  should  be  ascertain- 
ed to  arrest  threatened  evils. 

These  propositions  were  expanded  into  an  impress- 
ive speech  of  more  than  an  hour. 

Mr.  Webster,  in  reply,  was  aided  in  his  invention 
of  arguments  by  the  course  already  pursued,  as  it  was 
his  purpose  to  weaken  the  effect  of  Mr.  Hayne's  argu- 
ments. An  abstract  of  his  speech  may  thus  be  drawn 
up  :  (1.)  A  denial  of  the  importance  of  the  inquiry,  be- 
cause all  who  needed  land  could  purchase  it  cheaply.  (2.) 
A  denial  that  any  party  had  advocated  an  oppression  of 
new  settlers.  (3.)  An  assertion  that  the  nation  asked 
for  its  lands  only  enough  to  pay  for  the  actual  expense 
of  surveying  them  and  protecting  the  settlers.  (4.)  An 
assertion  that  the  present  system  led  to  the  rapid 
growth  of  new  and  prosperous  States.  (5.)  That  there 
was  an  actual  compact  entered  into  by  which  the  pro- 
ceeds of  lands  sold  were  to  be  devoted  to  the  payment 
of  the  national  debt.  (6.)  It  was  necessary  that  the 
nation  should  be  consolidated.  (7.)  A  defense  of  the 
course  pursued  by  the  Northern  States  with  reference 
to  the  West. 

These  arguments  were  expanded  into  an  eloquent 
speech  of  about  two  hours  in  length. 

To  this  Mr.  Hayne  rejoined  in  a  speech  that  was 
thought  at  the  time  to  be  overwhelming  and  unai 
able.     Much  of  a  personal  character  was  mingled  with 
the  debate,  but  the  leading  propositions  of  the  speech 
were  as  follows : 


SPEECH   OF  MR.     WEBSTER.  339 

(1.)  An  assertion  that  Mr.  Webster  had  adroitly 
changed  the  subject  of  debate,  and  had  made  against 
the  South  a  false  charge  of  injustice  toward  the  West- 
ern States  ;  (2.)  That  his  present  doctrine  was  incon- 
sistent with  what  he  had  formerly  maintained ;  (3.) 
That  his  doctrine  that  the  wild  lands  were  the  prop- 
erty of  the  nation  was  inconsistent  with  his  willing- 
ness, elsewhere  shown,  to  vote  for  giving  portions  of 
them  for  the  building  of  roads,  constructing  canals,  and 
other  internal  improvements;  (4.)  That  the  friendliness 
of  the  North  with  the  West  was  the  result  of  a  cor- 
rupt political  bargain ;  (5.)  That  the  Southern  States 
were  unjustly  traduced  ;  (6.)  That  his  State  had  shown 
singular  devotion  to  the  Union,  while  men  in  Massa- 
chusetts had  plotted  against  the  country ;  and  (7.)  That 
the  doctrines  which  he  proclaimed  had  been  advocated 
by  the  fathers. 

This  somewhat  meagre  skeleton  was  clothed  with 
such  earnest,  fervid  appeal  and  profuseness  of  ill-ustra- 
tion  as  to  create  a  deep  impression. 

The  rejoinder  of  Daniel  Webster  is  perhaps  the 
most  eloquent,  certainly  it  is  the  most  celebrated  ora- 
tion ever  delivered  in  the  American  Senate.  It  ranks 
with  the  master-pieces  of  oratory  in  ancient  and  modern 
times.  Like  the  oration  of  Demosthenes  on  the  Crown, 
its  occasion  seemed  trivial,  but  really  it  embraced  in 
its  range  the  great  subjects  of  dissension  between  the 
rival  systems  of  civilization  in  this  country.  The  ora- 
tion deserves  to  be  studied  as  a  model.  The  impress 
of  genius  is  on  ever}'  paragraph.  The  introduction 
was  novel  and  striking  : 


340  RHETORIC. 

"Mm.  PRESIDENT.— When  the  mariner  has  been  tossed  for  many 
days  in  thick  weather,  and  on  an  unknown  sea,  he  naturally  avails 
himself  of  the  first  pause  in  the  storm,  the  earliest  glance  of  the  sun, 
to  take  his  latitude,  and  ascertain  how  far  the  elements  have  driven 
him  from  his  true  course.  Let  us  imitate  this  prudence,  and,  before 
we  float  farther  on  the  waves  of  this  debate,  refer  to  the  point  from 
which  we  departed,  that  we  may  at  least  be  able  to  conjecture  where  we 
now  are.  I  ask  for  the  reading  of  the  resolution  before  the  Senate." 

No  summary  of  the  arguments  which  followed 
would  do  justice  to  the  subject  It  was  severely  argu- 
mentative, rhetorically  beautiful.  Not  a  paragraph, 
not  a  sentence,  scarcely  a  word  is  superfluous.  The 
peroration  is  one  of  the  most  eloquent  passages  ever 
uttered. 

Though  a  summary  of  the  leading  thoughts  of  the 
oration  can  give  no  adequate  idea  of  its  power,  yet  to 
show  how  simple  and  yet  logical  the  frame-work  was, 
upon  which  the  structure  was  built,  we  give  the  lead- 
ing thoughts. 

After  the  exordium,  given  above,  and  the  reading 
of  the  resolution,  Mr.  Webster  stated,  (1.)  The  main 
subject  had  been  neglected  by  his  opponent,  and  all 
who  had  advocated  the  other  side  of  the  question. 
They  had  wandered  widely,  and  brought  in  much  that 
was  totally  irrelevant  (2.)  He  repelled  all  personal 
attacks  on  himself,  in  the  course  of  which  he  quoted 
some  remarks  of  his  opponent,  and  used  them  so  as  to 
show  his  own  real  or  assumed  superiority  of  purpose. 
(3.)  He  then  vindicated  his  section  of  the  country  from 
the  charges  made  against  it,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
adroitly  used  some  allusions  made  by  his  opponent,  so 
as  to  turn  their  force  against  him.  A  long  historical 


S  UBJE V TS  FOli    l.\  \-  i:XTION.  34 1 

argument  is  here  introduced.  (4.)  He  repelled  and  dis- 
proved the  alleged  "corrupt  political  bargain."  (5.) 
He  denied  any  prejudice  or  unfairness  toward  the 
South.  (6.)  He  then  advocated  a  liberal  policy  toward 
the  new  States,  and  entered  into  a  long  constitutional 
argument  that  can  not  well  be  condensed.  (7.)  He 
closed  with  an  eloquent  plea  for  the  permanency  of  the 
Union. 

This  admirable  oration  was  not  written  in  full  till 
after  it  was  pronounced.  It  was,  however,  the  result 
of  long  and  careful  study,  the  author  having  frequently 
presented  all  the  arguments  and  facts  in  previous  dis- 
cussions, and  in  conversation,  and  could  never  have 
been  invented  but  by  a  man  thoroughly  conversant 
with  the  subject,  and  one  who  had  disciplined  himself 
to  accuracy  of  thought  and  expression  by  long  and 
severe  practice.  Besides,  the  oration  is  instinct  with 
genius  in  all  its  parts. 

42.  Exercises  in  Invention  in  Discussion. — Draw  up 
an  abstract  of  arguments  on  both  sides  of  each  of  the 
following  questions,  and  arrange  the  arguments  so  as 
to  make  the  strongest  possible  impression.  Then  show 
your  reasons,  in  conclusion,  for  preferring  that  side 
which  you  believe  to  be  correct. 

Which  are  more  valuable  to  a  country,  navigable 
rivers  or  railways? 

Is  life  in  the  city  or  country  preferable  ? 

Should  the  sale  of  intoxicating  drinks  for  a  bev- 
erage be  prohibited  by  law  ? 

Was  the  purchase  of  Alaska  by  the  United  States 
of  America  a  wise  measure  ? 


RHETORIC. 

Ought  parents  to  be  compelled  by  law  to  give  their 
children  (unless  sickness  prevents)  a  certain  amount  of 
literary  education  ? 

Ought  the  printing  and  sale  of  bad  books  to  be  for- 
bidden by  law? 

Which  was  the  greater  man,  "Washington  or  Na- 
poleon ? 

Which  did  the  most  for  his  country,  Franklin  or 
Washington  ? 

Have  wars  been  productive  of  greater  good  or  evil  ? 

Is  the  civilized  preferable  to  the  savage  state  ? 

Ought  the  right  of  suffrage  in  a  republic  to  be 
limited  by  an  educational  provision? 

Are  newspapers,  on  the  whole,  productive  of  good 
or  evil  ? 

Is  a  hilly  and  mountainous  country  preferable  to 
one  that  is  level  ? 

Have  we  reason  to  expect  as  great  improvements 
in  the  useful  arts  during  the  next  hundred  years  as 
during  the  past  hundred  ? 

Was  Demosthenes  the  greater  orator,  or  Webster? 

Is  the  sense  of  sight  of  more  value  to  man  than  the 
sense  of  hearing  ? 

Do  savage  nations  possess  a  full  right  to  the  soil  ? 

Is  the  world  advancing  in  mental  and  moral  charac- 
ter? 

Which  should  the  Government  encourage,  com- 
merce or  manufactures? 


ADVICE   ON  INVENTION.  343 


CHAPTER  VI. 

INVENTION   IN  MISCELLANEOUS   PRODUCTIONS. 

43.  General  Principles. —  THE  general  principles  of 
Invention  will  be  easily  seen  from  what  has  already 
been  stated.  To  invent  addresses,  essays,  criticisms, 
letters,  dialogues,  tales,  poems,  select  the  best  models 
and  study  them,  gather  material,  arrange,  reject,  modi- 
fy, and  improve  it,  until  a  satisfactory  outline  is  made, 
and  then  patiently  complete  the  work.  Practice  alone 
makes  perfect. 

44.  Invention  in  Style. — This  also  should  be  sedu- 
lously cultivated.     No  one  should  be  contented  with  a 
fair  mastery  of  one  style.     His  own  most  natural  and 
efficient  style  will  be  improved  by  attempting  many 
others.     Let  the  writer  who   finds  all  his  sentences 
short  and  crispy,  by  sheer  resolution  write  some  long 
and  periodic  sentences.     Let  the  writer  who  finds  the 
use  of  metaphors  unnatural,  seek  out  comparisons  and 
invent  metaphors,  however  tedious  the  effort. 

45.  How  Invention  is  acquired. — The  art  of  Inven- 
tion can  not  be  learned  from  a  text-book.     Science 
teaches  only  how  to  use  material  already   existing. 
The  student  who  forms  the  habit  of  reading  with  his 
pencil  in  hand,  and  who  frequently  expresses  what 
thoughts  he  has  on  paper,  will  not  long  need  to  study 
the  art  of  Invention.     Severe  study  and  abundant  prac- 


U44  UHBTO&IO. 

tice,  with  the  special  object  of  self-improvement,  are 
indispensable  to  the  highest  success ;  but  in  the  busi- 
ness of  actual  life,  when  writing  and  speaking  cease  to 
be  an  end,  but  are  employed  as  a  means,  then  one  must 
be  able  to  forget  himself,  to  forget  rule  (except  so  far 
as  not  outrageously  to  violate  it),  and  aim  only  to  ac- 
complish his  main  purpose. 

46.  Whately's  Advice.  —  Dr.  Whately  has  well  re- 
marked : 

"  The  safest  rule  is,  never,  during  the  act  of  compo- 
sition, to  study  elegance,  or  think  about  it  at  all.  Let 
an  author  study  the  best  models — mark  their  beauties 
of  style  and  dwell  upon  them,  that  he  may  insensibly 
catch  the  habit  of  expressing  himself  with  elegance ; 
and  when  he  has  completed  any  composition,  he  may 
revise  it,  and  cautiously  alter  any  passage  that  is  awk- 
ward and  harsh,  as  well  as  those  that  are  feeble  and 
obscure  ;  but  let  him  never,  while  writing,  think  of  any 
beauties  of  style,  but  content  himself  with  such  as  may 
come  spontaneously." 

The  secret  of  efficient  speaking  is,  first,  to  have  some- 
thing to  say,  and  second,  to  express  it  fully  and  exact- 

iy- 

47.  BoUngbrokds  Opinion. — Though  the  sentiment 
has  already  been  expressed,  we  give  the  opinion  of 
Bolingbroke,  who  illustrated  in  his  own  life  the  power 
of  eloquence.     "  Eloquence,"  he  says,  "  has  charms  to 
lead  mankind,  and  gives  a  nobler  superiority   than 
power,  that  every  dunce  may  use,  or  fraud,  that  every 
knave  may  employ.     But  eloquence  must  flow  like  a 
stream  that  is  fed  by  an  abundant  spring,  and  not  spout 


SUBJECTS   FOR   1NVENTIOX.  345 

forth  like  a  frothy  water  on  some  gaudy  day,  and  re- 
main dry  the  rest  of  the  year.  The  famous  orators 
of  Greece  and  Rome  were  the  statesmen  and  ministers 
of  those  commonwealths.  The  nature  of  their  govern- 
ments, and  the  humor  of  those  ages,  made  elaborate 
orations  necessary.  They  harangued  oftener  than 
they  debated  ;  and  the  ars  dicendi  required  more  study 
and  more  exercise  of  mind,  and  of  body  too,  among 
them,  than  are  necessary  among  us.  But  as  much 
pains  as  they  took  in  learning  how  to  conduct  the 
stream  of  eloquence,  they  took  more  to  enlarge  the 
foundation  from  which  it  flowed." 

48.  Milton1  s  Opinion. — We  add  a  few  weighty  words 
from  Milton : 

"  True  eloquence  I  find  to  be  none  but  the  serious 
and  hearty  love  of  truth ;  and  that  whose  mind  soever 
is  fully  possessed  with  a  fervent  desire  to  know  good 
things,  and  with  the  dearest  charity  to  infuse  the  knowl- 
edge of  these  things  into  others,  when  such  a  man 
would  speak,  his  words,  like  so  many  nimble  and  airy 
servitors,  trip  about  him  at  command,  and  in  well- 
ordered  files,  as  he  would  wish,  fall  aptly  into  their 
own  places." 

49.  Examples  for  Practice. — We  subjoin  a  few  sub- 
jects, simply  as  specimens,  to  write  upon.     Whatever 
subject  be  chosen,  if,  instead  of  the  vain  attempt  to 
write  at  once,  without  thought,  suitable  efforts  be  made 
to  collect  information,  an  interest  will  be  aroused  which 
will  make  it  comparatively  easy  to  write. 

Letter  to  a  Friend  describing  a  severe  Snow-storm. 
Letter  describing  a  severe  Drought. 
P2 


:U6  RHETORIC. 

Letter  describing  a  Fire. 

Address  to  a  Popular  Assembly  on  Universal 
Education. 

Speech  in  Favor  of  a  more  reasonable  Observance 
of  the  Sabbath. 

Lecture  on  the  Art  of  Printing. 

Anniversary  Address  on  the  4th  of  July. 

Oration  on  Washington,  for  February  22d. 

Oration  on  Christianity  in  America. 

An  Anecdote. 

Journal  of  a  Week's  Residence  at  Home. 

Journal  of  a  Week's  Travel. 

Description  of  a  Presidential  Inauguration. 

A  Review  of  "  The  Pilgrim's  Progress." 

A  Book  Notice  of  a  new  Edition  of  "  Robinson 
Crusoe." 

Utility  of  such  a  Book  as  "  The  Arabian  Nights' 
Entertainments." 

Letter  to  the  N.  Y.  Day  Star  (a  newspaper)  describ- 
ing a  Revolution  in  Mexico. 

Letter  from  one  of  a  Party  saved  from  Shipwreck. 

Communication  to  a  Paper  describing  a  great  Flood. 

Description  of  an  Accident  on  a  Railway. 

Dialogue  between  a  Republican  and  a  Monarchist. 

Dialogue  between  a  Farmer  and  a  Lawyer. 

North  and  South  America  compared. 

An  Allegory  :  The  European  Sisters  (Nations). 

An  Allegory :  Contest  between  the  Virtues  and  the 
Vices. 

Contrast  between  Ancient  Greece  and  Modern 
China. 


SUBJECTS   FOR   INVENTION.  347 

Impulse  and  Principle. 

New  England  and  Old  England. 

Effects  of  the  Discovery  of  America. 

Proceedings  o£  a  Public  Meeting  called  to  consider 
the  propriety  of  building  a  new  School-house. 

Eeport  of  a  Committee  appointed  to  draft  Reso- 
lutions  at  a  Meeting  held  to  prevent  Intemperance. 

A  Petition  addressed  to  the  Legislature  of  this  State 
for  the  enactment  of  a  Law  the  more  effectually  to 
prevent  Gambling. 

Report  of  a  Committee  appointed  to  visit  the 
Schools  of  this  State,  and  to  examine  their  Condition, 
and  suggest  what  Improvements  are  needed. 

Reform  Schools :  their  Character  and  Usefulness. 

The  Magnetic  Needle  and  the  Bible. 

The  Telescope  and  the  Microscope. 

The  Slavery  of  Evil  Habits. 

Prospects  of  the  English  Language. 

The  Chinese  in  America. 

The  Effects  of  Music  and  Painting  compared. 

Socrates  and  Franklin  compared. 

Importance  of  Agricultural  Colleges. 

A  Poem :  America  in  the  19th  Century. 

A  Poem :  The  Last  Red  Man. 

A  Poem :  The  Submarine  Telegraph. 


PART    V, 

ELOCUTION. 


ELOCUTION.  351 


CHAPTER  I. 

PROPRIETY  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  ELOCUTION. 

1.  Definition. — ELOCUTION  teaches  how  most  effect- 
ively to  pronounce  or  speak  any  production,  original 
or  borrowed. 

In  a  practical  Rhetoric  we  are  compelled  often  to 
observe  the  distinction  between  productions  that  are 
designed  to  be  printed  and  read,  and  those  which  are 
designed  to  be  spoken.  The  former  must  be  written, 
the  latter  may  be  pronounced  either  with  or  without 
having  been  written. 

2.  How  to  make  a  Production  impressive. — An  au- 
thor's interest  in  his  productions  does  not  usually  cease 
with  their  creation  ;  he  desires  to  introduce  them  favor- 
ably.    If  they  are  to  be  printed,  much  depends  on  the 
vehicle  chosen.     Shall  they  be  published  as  a  book,  or 
in  some  periodical?     Shall  they  be  illustrated  by  pic- 
tures?    Shall  they  appear  in  an  expensive  or  cheap 
form  ?     A  poor  production  may  borrow  a  temporary 
popularity  from  an  attractive  dress,  or  from  undeserved 
eulogy,  and  a  meritorious  work  might  sink  into  obliv- 
ion from  an  unfavorable  presentation.     The  art  of  pub- 
lishing, however,  can  not  here  be  investigated.     But 
Elocution,  the  art  of  speaking  well,  claims  attention  in 
a  treatise  on  Rhetoric,  and  is  intrinsically  valuable. 

3.  Opposite  erroneous  Views  on  the  Power  of  Elocu- 


352  ItHKTORIC. 

tion. — Before  examining  its  elements,  it  may  be  well 
to  expose  an  unworthy  prejudice  against  it,  and  also 
to  guard  against  extravagant  ideas  of  its  value. 

Dr.  Whately,  in  his  Rhetoric,  pronounces  unquali- 
fied condemnation  on  all  practical  treatises  on  the  sub- 
ject, and  on  all  modes  of  instruction  adopted  previous 
to  his  time,  and  contents  himself  with  recommending 
a  "  natural  manner  of  speaking,"  to  be  cultivated 
simply  by  private  attention  to  the  subject,  aided  by 
friendly  criticisms.  He  expressly  discountenances 
special  efforts  to  cultivate  the  voice,  and  the  recitation, 
from  memory,  of  the  productions  of  others. 

On  the  other  hand  many  seem  to  believe  that  ora- 
tory, in  the  highest  sense,  is  easily  within  the  reach  of 
all ;  that  men  unqualified  by  previous  culture,  with  a 
narrow  range  of  thought,  need  only  to  study  and  prac- 
tice "Elocution,"  to  make  themselves  attractive  and 
successful  speakers.  Also  many  already  engaged  in 
public  speaking,  but  not  meeting  with  the  success  which 
they  anticipated,  have  studied  Elocution  a  few  weeks, 
perhaps  under  the  direction  of  some  uncultivated  dog- 
matist, who  promised  to  exhaust  the  subject  of  oratory 
in  from  six  to  twelve  lessons,  and  not  finding  any  in- 
crease in  ability,  are  ready  to  coincide  with  Dr.  Whate- 
ly, in  the  opinion  that  the  study  is  practically  useless, 
if  not  pernicious.  Both  these  extremes  are  absurd. 

•i.  Elocution  u  an  Art. — Elocution  is,  in  fact,  a  com- 
plex art,  based  on  inflexible  science,  and  worthy  of 
careful  and  exhaustive  study.  Elocution  is  impos- 
sible, or  would  be  useless,  without  expression ;  ex- 
pression is  impossible,  or  would  be  useless,  without 


ELOCUTION  A    FINE  ART.  353 

thought.  Parrots  may  be  trained  to  articulate,  but 
speech  is  valueless  without  intellect  and  heart.  Good 
declaimers  of  the  productions  of  others  are  often  poor 
original  speakers,  because  they  have  nothing  valuable 
of  their  own  to  say.  You  can  not  put  the  polish  of 
steel  on  iron.  Genuine  coins  are  distinguished  from 
counterfeit  by  their  ring.  Young  men  can  not  expect 
to  become  good  speakers  by  the  study  of  elocution 
unless  their  minds  are  disciplined  and  stored  with 
thought. 

Eloquence  deserves  to  be  ranked  among  the  fine 
arts.  Like  her  sisters,  Painting,  Sculpture,  Architec- 
ture, and  Music,  she  aims  both  to  please  and  profit ; 
and  as  her  territory  is  the  widest,  so  is  she  the  most 
useful  of  the  family.  Oratory  is  as  capable  of  culti- 
vation as  any  of  the  sister  arts ;  and  is  as  rigidly  sub- 
ject to  laws  which  can  be  investigated  and  obeyed.  If 
all  men  had  a  perfect  elocution,  their  comparative  in- 
fluence on  others  would  depend  solely  upon  the  power 
of  their  thoughts  and  emotions.  There  would  still  be 
strong  and  feeble  speakers.  But  in  fact  many  clear 
thinkers  and  warm-hearted  speakers  produce  but  little 
effect,  on  account  of  their  defective  and  vicious  elocu- 
tion ;  while  some  speakers,  feeble  in  mind  and  heart, 
exert  superior  influence,  from  their  attractive  and  effi- 
cient style  of  oratory.  It  is  unreasonable  and  false 
to  assert  that  this  grace,  however  subtle  and  mysteri- 
ous its  qualities,  can  not  be  analyzed  and  mastered,  and 
cultivated. 

5.  Elocution,  as  an  Art,  can  be  cultivated. — There  is 
no  other  art  in  which  the  good  effect  of  study  and 


:*54  RHETORIC. 

careful  practice  has  been  so  frequently  and  so  clearly 
demonstrated  as  in  oratory.  Comparatively  few  of 
the  greatest  orators  gave  promise  of  their  future  suc- 
cess in  their  first  efforts  at  public  speaking.  Oratory 
requires  such  a  combination  of  faculties  and  energies, 
that  only  after  much  study  and  care,  as  a  usual  thing, 
can  it  be  successfully  practiced.  If  we  select  at  ran- 
dom a  dozen  out  of  the  most  eminent  speakers  in  the 
world,  we  shall  probably  find  that,  in  a  majority  of  in- 
stances, their  earliest  efforts  at  speaking  were,  in  their 
own  estimation,  failures.  Those  who  are  so  destitute 
of  sensibility  that  they  speak  passably  well  without 
effort  seldom  improve  much  upon  their  juvenile  per- 
formances.* 

A  moderate,  endurable  style  of  speaking  is  easily 
attainable,  especially  to  a  man  of  fair  intelligence  and 
industry,  but  superiority  is  seldom  manifested,  and 
never  long  maintained  without  careful  study. 

*  The  best  speakers  never  lose  this  sensibility.  It  is  said  of  the 
great  actor  Garrick,,  that  having  been  summoned  to  give  his  testimony 
before  a  court,  though  he  had  been  in  the  habit  of  speaking  before 
thousands  of  people  for  more  than  thirty  years,  he  was  so  embarrassed 
\>\  hi>  >tran^e  situation  that  the  judge  in  pity  di-mi-sed  him,  as  a  man 
from  whom  no  testimony  could  be  obtained.  Without  such  sensibility 
would  he  have  been  Garrick  ? 


ARTICULATION.  355 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE   MECHANICAL   ELEMENTS  OF  ELOCUTION. 

6.  Articulation. — ELOCUTION  is  partly  mechanical. 
There  is  a  certain  amount  of  machinery  to  be  employed 
in  the  expression  of  the  language  chosen  to  convey 
thought  and    emotion.     We  must  make  use  of  the 
words   agreed  upon  as  symbols  of  thought.     These 
may  be  perfectly  or  incorrectly  uttered.     In  fact,  but 
a  small  minority  of  the  people,  thus  far,  are  in  the  habit 
of  uttering  properly  all  the  sounds  belonging  to  their 
own  language.     Some  omit  some  sounds,  others  other 
sounds ;  and  the  hearer  is  compelled  often  to  guess  out 
a  part  of  the  meaning  of  the  speaker,  or  to  supply  the 
blanks  by  his  own  mental  effort.     Often  whole  words 
are  lost,  still  more  frequently  syllables  and  parts  of 
syllables  are  lost,  or  incorrectly  pronounced. 

A  good  articulation,  or  enunciation,  is  the  first  me- 
chanical requisite  of  Elocution. 

By  a  good  articulation  we  mean  the  actual  audible 
pronunciation  of  every  sound  that  properly  belongs 
to  the  word,  or  collection  of  words,  purporting  to  be 
uttered. 

7.  Good  Articulation  often  imperceptibly  acquired,  and 
its  Absence  often  unnoticed.  —  Fortunate  are  they  who 
have  enjoyed  the  advantages  of  good  society  in  child- 
hopd,  and  have  thus  imperceptibly  acquired  a  correct 


MHJ 

pronunciation  ;  still  more  fortunate  they  who  have 
enjoyed  good,  rigid  instruction  in  early  life,  in  the 
elements  of  correct  speaking.  In  no  art  are  the 
ices  of  a  teacher  more  necessary.  Not  one  person  in 
twenty,  who  has  a  defective  articulation,  seems  to  be 
aware  of  it,  or  perceives  it  even  after  bis  attention  is 
directed  to  it.  To  illustrate  what  we  mean  we  give 
an  extract  from  the  Bible  properly  printed,  and  the 
same  extract  as  it  would  be  pronounced  by  some  per- 
sons who  think  that  they  speak  the  English  language. 

"To  whom  host  thou  uttered  words  ?  and  whose  spirit  came  from 
thee  ?  Dead  things  are  formed  from  under  the  waters,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants thereof.  I  Ml  i-  naked  before  him,  and  destruction  hath  no  cover- 
ing. He  stretcheth  out  the  north  over  the  empty  place,  and  hangeth 
the  earth  upon  nothing." 

Many  would  read  or  speak  the  above  thus : 

* '  Toom  'sthou  uttered  wnds  ?  ndtoose  spi't  came  fum  thee  ?  Dead 
things  are  fo'med  fmunder  th'  waters,  ml  thnhahitns  throf.  Hell's 
naked  beforem  'nd  'struction  hath  no  coverin.  He  stretcheth  out  th' 
north  over  themty  place  'nd  hangth  th'  earth  upon  nuthng." 

Few,  perhaps,  would  make  all  the  errors  indicated 
in  the  above  passage,  but  many  would  make  some  of 
them,  and  many  a  tolerable  speaker  would  be  aston- 
ished to  see  his  speech  phonetically  reported  in  print. 

8.  A  Common  Fault. — Defective  articulation  is  the 
most  common  fault  of  public  speakers.  Audiences  are 
obliged  to  guess  the  meaning  of  a  large  part  of  what 
they  endeavor  to  hear,  through  the  ignorance  or  care- 
lessness of  speakers  in  this  particular.  Loudness  of 
voice  will  not  compensate  for  this  evil.  A  man  with 
a  correct  articulation  can  be  understood  almost  as  far 
as  his  voice  can  be  heard.  Nothing  is  more  common 


PRACTICE  IN  ARTICULATION.  357 

than  for  public  speakers  to  complain  of  the  difficulty 
of  being  heard  in  a  room  that  will  not  hold  more  than 
from  five  hundred  to  a  thousand  people !  In  all  such 
instances  the  speakers  betray  their  defective  articula- 
tion. They  show  their  incompetency  for  the  profes- 
sion they  have  chosen.  The  average  voice  of  a  boy 
twelve  years  old  will  make  a  thousand  people  hear 
distinctly,  if  all  the  syllables  are  correctly  and  evenly 
pronounced  ;  and  any  man  who  professes  to  be  a  public" 
speaker  ought  to  be  able  to  make  from  three  to  five 
thousand  people  hear  without  difficulty.  Men  should 
not  presume  to  address  a  congregation  till  they  have 
themselves  learned  how  to  talk.  A  student  of  music 
spends  much  time  in  playing  or  singing  the  scales  in 
all  the  keys.  He  can  never  depend  on  his  ability  to 
strike  all  the  notes  in  a  complicated  and  rapid  combi- 
nation, unless  he  has  trained  himself  by  this  previous 
practice.  So  public  speakers  should  keep  their  vocal 
organs  under  control,  by  practice  in  actually  making 
all  the  sounds  in  the  language.  If  combinations  of 
words  or  sentences  difficult  to  pronounce,  such  as  are 
given  in  many  elementary  works  on  Elocution,  are  not 
at  hand,  the  end  can  be  attained  by  the  careful  loud 
reading  of  miscellaneous  passages,  with  special  refer- 
ence to  this  object.  The  practice  of  dictating  a  cata- 
logue of  miscellaneous  words  to  another  person  some 
good  distance  off,  to  be  written,  is  valuable.  Defective 
or  erroneous  articulation  can  not  be  broken  up  without 
the  most  assiduous  effort.  If  possible,  every  candidate 
for  public  speaking  should  subject  himself  to  a  trust- 
worthy teacher  on  this  subject,  to  be  sure  that  he  is 


358  ERETORll'. 

not  the  victim  of  some  erroneous  habits.  With  the 
effort,  almost  any  lisp  or  improper  articulation  can  be 
avoided  or  overcome. 

9.  All  the  Words  should  be  distinctly  littered. — Upon 
this  subject  of  distinct  speaking  it  should  be  observed 
that  the  excellency  should  be  exhibited  throughout 
the  entire  speech.     As  no  chain  is  stronger  than  its 
weakest  link,  so  if  a  speaker  is  remarkably  distinct  in 
some  passages,  and  inaudible,  or  his  syllables  are  un- 
distinguishable,  in  others,  the  good  effect  of  the  whole 

be  marred.  A  hearer  has  a  right  to  claim  that  a 
speaker  should  utter  all  his  words  so  as  to  be  heard. 
This  first  principle  of  Elocution  is  the  one  most  fre- 
quently and  inexcusably  violated,  and  if  the  study  of 
the  art  can  accomplish  nothing  else,  it  can  certainly 
attain  to  distinct  enunciation.  On  this  subject  Sheri- 
dan well  remarks: 

"  A  good  articulation  consists  in  giving  every  letter 
in  a  syllable  its  due  proportion  of  sound,  according  to 
the  most  approved  custom  of  pronouncing  it ;  and  in 
making  such  a  distinction  between  the  syllables  of 
which  words  are  composed,  that  the  ear  shall,  without 
difficulty,  acknowledge  their  number,  and  perceive  at 
once  to  which  S3'llable  each  letter  belongs.  Where 
these  particulars  are  not  observed  the  articulation  is 
defec 

10.  Proper  Rapidity  of  Speech. — After  one  is  sure  that 
he  can  make  all  the  sounds  properly  belonging  to  the 
language,  and  with  sufficient  distinctness,  then  he  should 
discipline  himself  to  rapid  speaking,  and  to  a  graceful 
and  indefinable  distribution  of  the  voice  upon  the  syl- 


VOICE— HEALTH.  359 

Ijibles  and  words,  according  to  their  relative  value. 
Some  speakers  are  so  careful  to  secure  a  distinct  ar- 
ticulation that  the  least  valuable  syllables  have  too 
much  attention.  The  pronunciation  becomes  artificial 
and  offensive.  It  attracts  the  attention  of  the  hearer 
as  peculiarly  precise,  and  thus  defeats  its  own  end.  It 
is  the  height  of  art  to  conceal  art.  The  best  pronun- 
ciation, like  the  best  style,  is  that  which,  like  the  best 
window  glass,  is  least  noticed.  But  rapid  utterance 
should  never  be  attempted  till  correct  utterance  is  per- 
fectly mastered.  Every  speaker  should  be  able,  at 
will,  to  speak  with  great  rapidity,  or  to  speak  grace- 
fully, very  slowly.  The  rate  of  speaking  varies  from 
about  eighty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  words,  on  the 
average,  in  a  minute.  "Where  the  thought  is  easily 
apprehended  and  the  feelings  are  excited,  there  are  in- 
stances in  which  the  highest  effect  requires  that  the 
words  should  be  poured  out  in  a  torrent.  In  some 
instances  the  utterances  should  be  slow,  and  with  long 
pauses  between. 

11.  Range  of  Voice. — The  mechanical  part  of  Elocu- 
tion requires  also  a  wide  range  of  voice,  both  in  loud- 
ness  and  in  pitch. 

12.  Good  Health  required. — In  this  respect   much 
depends  on  the  physical  constitution.     No  occupation 
more  requires  good  health  than  public  speaking.     The 
lungs  and  throat  will  not  usually  be  healthy  and  strong 
unless  the  whole  bodily  system  is  vigorous.     The  sim- 
ple exertion  of  standing  an  hour  or  two  is  not  small ; 
but  when  to  this  are  added  the  rapid  and  almost  in- 
cessant articulation  of  words,  in  various  degrees  of 


360  RHETORIC. 

loudness,  and  with  various  tones  of  voice,  and  the  ges- 
tures or  movements  of  body  which  the  expression 
of  thought  and  emotion  suggests  and  requires,  and 
the  exercise  of  the  brain  and  the  nerves  which  they 
demand,  we  see  that  good  sound  health  is  essential. 
Public  speakers  can  not  keep  themselves  in  proper 
condition  without  obedience  to  the  laws  of  life  in  food, 
and  clothing,  and  exercise. 

There  are  innate  peculiarities  of  voice  that  can  not 
be  overcome  by  training.  ^  A  tenor  voice,  for  instance, 
can  not  be  transformed  into  a  bass  voice,  nor  the  con- 
trary. No  one  should  seek  to  change  his  constitutional 
peculiarities.  Oratory  is  possible  with  any  voice  that 
can  be  heard  by  a  sufficient  number.  If  smooth,  me- 
lodious voices  have  at  first  an  advantage,  a  rough  voice 
may  be  so  modulated  that  all  disagreeable  impressions 
from  it  may  disappear,  and  it  is  likely,  when  well 
trained,  to  excel  a  naturally  smooth  voice  in  compass. 
But  every  speaker  may,  by  appropriate  and  persever- 
ing exercise,  increase  the  range  and  volume  of  sound 
under  his  command,  and  also  the  power  to  make  pre- 
cise and  nice  distinctions  of  tone,  appropriate  to  the 
various  shades  of  thought  and  the  kind  and  degrees  of 
feeling. 

13.  Adaptation  of  Voice. — A  public  speaker  should 
adapt  the  amount  of  voice,  and  somewhat  the  distinct- 
ness of  articulation,  to  the  requirements  of  the  occa- 
sion. It  betrays  an  intentional  rudeness,  or  a  want  of 
sound  sense,  for  a  speaker  to  address  an  assembly  so 
as  not  to  be  distinctly  heard.  Many  preachers  betray 
their  want  of  training,  if  not  of  good  judgment,  or  po- 


TOO   LOUD   A    VOICE.  361 

liteness,  by  beginning  their  speaking,  or  reading,  or 
even  public  prayers,  in  so  low  a  voice  that  many  in 
the  assembly  might  as  well  be  elsewhere.  All  such 
persons  insult  a  large  part  of  the  assembly,  unless  their 
voice  is  too  feeble  to  reach  them,  in  which  case  self- 
respect  should  -compel  them  to  refuse  to  speak.  Of 
course,  it  is  an  exception  to  this  rule  when  the  congre- 
gation is  too  large  to  be  reached  by  a  good  voice,  or, 
as  is  often  the  case  in  court,  when  the  speaker  intends 
to  be  heard  only  by  those  in  his  immediate  vicinity. 

This  requirement  of  good  sense  is  violated  so  often 
that  students  of  Elocution  should  give  it  especial  at- 
tention. All  persons  who  are  invited  to  listen  to  a 
public  speaker  have  a  right  to  expect  that  every  word 
will  be  uttered  with  sufficient  distinctness  and  power 
to  be  heard  by  every  one  of  average  ability  to  hear 
and  understand;  and  a  failure  to  accomplish  this  shows 
the  speaker  not  only  to  be  incompetent  for  his  place, 
but  impertinent. 

14.  Too  loud  a  Voice. — The  opposite  extreme  of  too 
loud  a  voice  is  not  uncommon.  The  consequences 
are  evil  to  the  speaker,  and  unpleasant  to  the  hearers. 
Uniform  or  protracted  loudness  wearies  the  lungs,  and 
unfits  the  throat  for  nice  variations  of  tone.  It  is  an 
effort  which  nature  intends  should  be  made  only  rarely 
and  briefly.  It  degenerates  usually,  if  prolonged,  into 
a  falsetto  screech,  or  a  howl.  Only  undiscrirninating 
speakers  make  the  mistake  of  supposing  that  a  very 
loud  sound  is  needed  for  the  greatest  effect.  Deep 
passion  seldom  so  exhibits  itself.  The  engine  when 
most  noisy  is  not  accomplishing  the  most  work. 

Q 


362  RHETORIC. 

15.  A  N'.it"r<ii  Manner. — A  speaker,  to  avoid  weari- 
ness and  the  injurious  effects  of  vicious  speaking,  should 
express  himself  naturally,  that  is  to  say,  with  the  same 
kind  of  variety  in  the  pitch  and  tone  of  voice  which 
the  most  of  sensible  persons  use  in  good  conversation. 
"  Speaking  with  a  tone,"  as  it  is  often  termed,  usually 
consists  of  the  constant  and  frequent  recurrence  of  the 
same  note  in  the  scale,  or  the  same  succession  of  two 
or  three  notes.     If  the  vowel  sounds  are  drawn  out  a 
little  more  than  is  common,  the  speaker  seems  to  sing. 
Sometimes  this  peculiarity  becomes  a  nasal  twang. 
The  misfortune  is  that  few  who  have  these  evil  habits 
are  aware  of  it,  and  that  they  can  not  overcome  them 
but  by  the  most  assiduous  effort.     A  tone  rather  be- 
tokens hypocrisy  than  genuine  feeling.     Men  seldom 
use  it  when  off  their  guard  and  deeply  in  earnest. 

16.  Monotony  should  be  Avoided. — Speaking  on  the 
same  key  of  voice  will  be  likely  to  break  down  the 
strongest  throat,  sooner  or  later.     A  man  with  this 
habit  becomes  more  weary  from  one  hour's  effort,  than 
he  would  from  six  hours'  steady  speaking  if  he  varied 
the  tone  of  his  voice  sufficiently  often.     A  man  can 
work  ten  hours  if  he  has  the  usual  variety  of  muscu- 
lar exercise,  with  less  fatigue  than  would  follow  from 
making  one  simple  motion  of  the  arms  incessantly  for 
one  hour.     Speakers  should  therefore  habituate  them- 
selves to  several  distinct  pitches  of  voice,  from  low  to 
high,  and  the  various  degrees  of  loudness  and  of  ra- 
pidity of  utterance. 

17.  Proper  Inflation  of  the  Lungs. — Let  the  lungs  al- 
be  fully  inflated  with  air  at  the  beginning  of  a 


FULL   LUNGS— PRONUNCIATION.  363 

long  sentence,  and  as  far  as  possible  keep  them  all  the 
time  inflated.  This  practical  direction  is  of  great  value 
to  speakers.  -  In  an  expiration  the  lungs  are  never  en- 
tirely emptied,  but  they  may  be  so  nearly  so  that  it  is 
impossible  to  speak  easily  and  loud.  In  such  a  case 
the  muscles  of  the  throat  and  the  upper  part  of  the 
chest  do  all  the  work.  The  result  is  exhaustion  and, 
often,  bronchitis.  But  let  the  lungs  be  full,  let  the 
position  be  erect,  and  let  the  speaker  pause  frequentl  v 
enough  to  inflate  his  lungs  fully — not  usually  through 
the  mouth,  but  through  the  nostrils — and  the  voice 
comes  out  easily,  the  whole  chest  plays,  and  the  ab- 
dominal muscles,  as  a  kind  of  reserved  force,  assist 
the  lungs  in  time  of  need ;  and  thus  a  man,  with  suit- 
able variations  of  tone  and  rapidity,  can  address  a 
thousand  people  for  several  hours  without  bodily 
weariness,  and  repeat  the  exercise  daily  without  harm. 
Speak  naturally,  variously,  and  with  fully  expanded 
lungs,  thus  using  the  abdominal  muscles,  and  so  far 
from  producing  bronchitis,  public  speaking  will  be 
found  to  be  its  most  efficient  preventive,  and  even 
remedy.  This  should  not  be  called  "preachers'  sore 
throat,"  but  "poor  speakers'  sore  throat." 

18.  A  Correct  Pronunciation. — It  seems  almost  su- 
perfluous to  call  attention  to  correctness  of  pronunci- 
ation, as  one  of  the  mechanical  elements  of  Elocution. 
Sometimes,  but  rarely,  does  a  mispronunciation  of  a 
word — an  error  in  accent  or  in  the  sound  of  a  syllable 
— mislead  the  hearer,  but  it  always  betokens  that  the 
speaker  is  ignorant  of  the  right  way.  If  one  pronoun- 
ces many  words  incorrectly  he  will  be  regarded  as  an 


364  RHETORIC. 

\ 
ignorant  man ;  his  opinion,  especially  on  matters  that 

require  scholarship  and  attention  to  nice  particulars, 
will  not  be  so  highly  esteemed  as  though  he  were 
habitually  correct. 

19.  Proper  Positions  of  the  Body. — The  bodily  posi- 
tions assumed  by  the  speaker  have  an  influence  upon 
the  hearers,  and,  reciprocally,  upon  the  speaker,  and 
thus  constitute  an  element  of  mechanical  Elocution. 
For  the  most  part,  the  body  should  be  naturally  erect, 
so  as  to  give  full  play  to  the  lungs  and  throat,  but 
not  excessively  and  unyieldingly  so,  thus  indicating 
haughtiness  or  pride.     If  the  weight  is  supported 
chiefly  upon  the  left  foot,  with  the  right  foot  a  little 
advanced,  and  right  knee  slightly  bent,  the  body  is  in 
the  best  natural  position  to  furnish  an  easy  play  for 
the  right  hand  in  gesture.     A  similar  resting  upon 
the  right  foot  is  an  equally  easy  position,  furnishing 
an  easy  play  for  the  left  hand.     Animated  speaking 
will  naturally  lead  to  an  advance  of  the  foot  that  was 
partially  unoccupied,  now  resting  the  principal  weight 
upon  it,  and  communicating  to  the  person  an  appear- 
ance of  deep  earnestness.     Any  position  not  uncouth 
or  awkward,  or  too  persistently  maintained,  is  allow- 
able.    Speaking  behind  a  high  desk  which  conceals 
the  most  of  the  person,  and  is  often  leaned  upon,  leads 
to  pernicious  habits  of  position,  and  often  deprives 
what  is  uttered  of  a  great  part  of  its  effect.     Speakers 
should  not  be  separated  from  audiences  by  a  fence. 
If  the  fence  exists,  let  the  speaker,  as  far  as  possible, 
ignor 

20.  '/»-.*//>•>///////>/?. — Gesticulation  may,  to  a  narrow 


QESTUUX.  365 

extent,  be  an  element  of  natural  language.  There  are 
gestures  instinctively  acknowledged  to  be  significant. 
The  open  hand  betokens  generosity  and  favor;  the 
clenched  hand  earnestness,  sometimes  defiance ;  the 
quivering  hand  excitement  and  zeal.  No  explana- 
tion is  needed  of  such  gestures  as  pointing  in  any  di- 
rection, looking  upward  or  downward,  striking  with 
the  hand,  or  stamping  with  the  foot.  If  \>y  private 
practice  the  student  has  disciplined  himself  to  a  va- 
riety of  movements,  not  constrained  but  free  and  easy, 
the  motions  that  will  be  spontaneously  assumed  under 
the  influence  of  excited  feeling  will  be  the  best  for 
him  to  employ.  An  impassive,  immobile  style  of 
speaking  is  the  most  reprehensible.  The  speaker  is 
not  a  machine  to  grind  out  words  mechanically. 
There  should  be  some  good  reason  why  the  people 
would  rather  hear  than  read  his  speech.  If  he  has 
earnestness,  or  any  emotion,  it  will  show  itself  in  the 
voice,  the  eye,  the  position,  the  movements  of  the 
hands,  and  arms,  and  feet,  and  the  whole  body.  The 
body  of  an  orator  should  be,  for  the  time,  an  obedient 
servant  of  the  mind.  It  should  not  be  trammelled  by 
any  awkward  habits,  but  yield  itself  to  the  expression 
of  thought  and  emotion. 

At  the  same  time  excessive  gesture  is  more  disa- 
greeable than  deficiency.  It  soon  satiates  and  dis- 
gusts. It  reacts  against  the  speaker,  and  calls  atten- 
tion away  from  the  words  uttered  to  the  manner, 
which  is  fatal  to  all  genuine  eloquence. 


366  RHETORIC. 


CHAPTER  III. 

INTELLECTUAL  AND  MORAL    ELEMENTS  OF  ELO- 

10N. 

21.  Intellectual  Character  of  Elocution. — ELOCUTION 
is  far  more  comprehensive  and  subtle  in  its  laws  and 
powers  than  would  appear  simply  from   those   me- 
chanical elements  already  described.     It  is  pre-emi- 
nently intellectual  and  emotional.     It  is  the  art  by 
which  mind  and  heart  produce  the  greatest  effect  on 
mind  and  heart.     It  is  almost  inexhaustible  in  its  re- 
sources, and  makes  subservient  to  its  purposes  nearly 
all  modes  of  acting  upon  the  human  soul. 

22.  Relation  of  Sound  to  Thought. — Consider  first  its 
relation  to  sounds.     Some  sounds  intrinsically  suggest 
certain  thoughts  and  feelings.     It  is  not  a  matter  of 
association,  but  of  intuition.     Even  a  young  animal 
can  distinguish  between  a  call,  and  a  cry  of  alarm  and 
warning,  made  by  its  mother.     Is  a  human  being  in- 
ferior, in  this  matter,  to  a  brute  ?     Does  a  child  need 
to  be  taught  that  the  roar  of  a  lion  or  the  barking  of 
a  dog  is  disagreeable,  that  the  hissing  of  a  snake  is 
hateful,  or  that  the  singing  of  a  bird  is  melodious? 
How  early  does  an  infant  distinguish  the  meaning  of 
the  various  voices  of  the  mother !     In  these  facts  we 
see  the  germ  of  music,  whose  wondrous  power  has 
been  the  theme  of  many  an  oration  and  poem. 


EFFECT   OF    VAUlul'*    XOUXJJS.  367 

But,  developed  in  a  different  direction,  sounds  made 
by  the  human  voice  become  significant,  wholly  inde- 
pendent of  the  meaning  arbitrarily  associated  with 
words.  There  is  a  certain  amount  of  vocal  language 
without  articulation.  A  man  who  speaks  only  a  for- 
eign language  can  communicate  many  ideas  by  his 
voice.  A  new  word  invented  for  the  occasion,  or  a 
word  of  another  language  not  understood,  may  be  so 
uttered,  or  intoned,  as  to  indicate  successively  a  re- 
quest, a  command,  pleasure,  pain,  laughter,  indigna- 
tion, and  scorn.  Indeed  were  men  confined  to  inar- 
ticulate language,  it  might,  by  culture,  become  no  mean 
vehicle  of  thought  and  emotion.  It  is  said  that  a 
noted  actor,,  by  the  repetition  of  the  word  Mesopota- 
mia, could  make  many  of  his  hearers  shed  tears. 
Sounds  alone,  especially  musical  notes,  can  awaken, 
or  subdue,  or  modify  passion.  It  is  not  a  matter  of 
i'ashion  or  caprice,  that  public  prayers  are  intoned,  or 
uttered  in  a  peculiar  voice,  which  would  be  ridicu- 
lously inappropriate  in  conversation  or  in  a  secular 
oration.  There  are  peculiar  tones  of  voice  appropri- 
ate to  the  expression,  respectively,  of  plaintive  emo- 
tion, entreaty,  love,  reverence,  fear,  anger,  authority, 
surprise,  .awe,  instruction,  suggestion,  denial,  resolu- 
tion, and  almost  all  other  passions  and  states  of  the 
mi  rid. 

23.  Employment  of  this  Principle  by  Oratory. —  The 
accomplished  orator  uses  these  various  tones  and  kinds 
of  voice,  and  blends  their  influence  with  the  meaning 
of  the  words  which  he  utters.  A  sentence  uttered  by 
him  means  little  or  much,  as  he  desires  to  have  it.  It 


368 

may  communicate  a  thrill  of  emotion  to  an  audience 
that  can  not  be  seen  in  the  mere  words  spoken.  The 
speeches  of  good  orators,  when  printed,  seldom  show 
the  secret  of  their  power. 

24.  Slides,  Accents,  Tones  of  Voice. —  In  speech  this 
power  of  impressing  others  by  the  voice  is  not  lost, 
but  should  be  legitimately  exercised.     This  is  the 
foundation  of  the  various  slides  and  stresses  and  ac- 
cents and  tones  of  the  voice,  which  are  detected  in  the 
most  efficient  speaking,  and   are  systematically  de- 
scribed in  elementary  treatises  on  Elocution. 

The  voice,  it  is  evident,  must  preserve  one  uniform 
monotone,  or  slide  up  ward,  or  slide  down  ward  in  speech. 
In  fact,  when  wjell  employed,  in  the  utterance  of 
thought  and  emotion,  it  maintains,  at  intervals,  all 
these  three  modes.  In  the  use  of  direct  questions,  that 
can  be  answered  by  Yes  or  No,  it  properly  assumes  the 
rising  inflection  ;  but  if  the  question  is-  not  designed 
to  be  answered,  nor  even  to  suggest  any  want  of  in- 
formation or  any  doubt  on  the  part  of  the  speaker,  it 
assumes  the  falling  inflection.  Observe  the  very  dif- 
ferent sentiment  expressed  by  this  question  :  "  'Will 
you  cut  down  this  tree  ?"  when  uttered  first  with  the 
nsing  inflection  and  then  with  the  falling  inflection. 

25.  Emphatic  Pauses. — The  slides,  whether  upward 
or  downward,  tend  to  lengthen  the  syllable  on  which 
they  are  uttered,  and  are  consequently  followed  by  a 
pause,  longer  or  shorter,  according  to  their  frequency 
and  the  emotion  of  the  speaker.     Pauses  of  suspen- 
sion, or  when  the  sense  is  not  complete,  or,  in  a  long 
sentence,  the  last  pause  but  one,  and  expressions  of 


RULES  NEED   NOT  EMBARRASS,  369 

tender  emotion,  all  naturally  assume  the  rising  inflec- 
tion. Indirect  questions,  the  completion  of  the  sense, 
all  expressions  that  do  not  suggest  a  continuance  of 
expression  to  bring  out  the  thought,  require  a  falling 
inflection. 

It  would  be  useless  to  present  a  thorough  analysis 
of  this  subject  without  many  examples,  but  all  who 
purpose  to  excel  as  public  speakers  should  thoroughly 
practice  the  examples  given  by  some  extended  work 
on  this  subject,  and  test  for  themselves  the  effect  on 
their  own  mind  and  heart  of  the  directions  given. 
Practice  is  needed  to  give  compass  to  the  voice  in  its 
intonations  as  well  as  in  its  volume,  for  if  all  the  vari- 
ous modulations  of  voice  have  been  once  thoroughly 
made  in  practice,  they  will  be  likely  spontaneously 
to  arise  in  actual  work. 

26.  Attention  to  Rule  need  not  embarrass  a  Speaker. — 
Whately  says  that,  a  speaker's  "  attention  being  fixed 
on  his  own  voice,  the  inevitable  consequence  would 
be  that  he  would  betray  more  or  less  his  studied  and 
artificial  delivery."  Not  at  all.  Apprentices  are  al- 
ways awkward  till  they  become  familiar  with  their 
tools.  No  man  is  a  first-class  speaker  till  he  becomes 
so  absorbed  in  his  subject  as  to  lose  all  active  self- 
consciousness,  but  then,  in  the  highest  heat  of  earnest- 
ness, he  will  act  not  only  according  to  nature,  but  ac- 
cording to  previously-formed  habits  of  position,  voice, 
intonation,  gesticulation,  and  all  other  modes  of  ex- 
pression. It  would  be  well  therefore  to  study  and 
execute  all  the  variations  of  voice  pointed  out  in  some 
elementary  treatise  on  the  subject,  repeatedly  and 
Q2 


370  RHETORIC. 

thoroughly,  till  the  vocal  apparatus  is  rendered  flexi- 
ble and  manageable,  and  then,  when  actually  speaking 
an  original  production,  utterly  to  abandon  all  thought 
of  intonation.*  The  great  deficiency  of  many  speak- 
ers arises  from  the  fact  that  they  have  never  actually 
made  all  the  various  sounds  that  full  speaking  re- 
quires, and  therefore  when  a  passion  is  excited  it  has 
no  adequate  mode  of  representation.  In  this  sense 
many  public  speakers  are  partially  dumb.  Their  vo- 
cabulary of  intonation  is  narrow.  Their  voice  and 
body  are  poor  and  inefficient  machines.  They  may 
have  power,  but  it  is  concealed  from  others,  perhaps 
from  themselves.  As  gymnastic  exercises  train  the 
body  for  any  demand  for  exertion  that  may  arise  in 
practical  life,  so  a  rigid  and  thorough  investigation 
and  practice  of  all  the  various  kinds  and  degrees  of 
voice  secures  to  the  speaker  an  exhaustless  reservoir 
from  which  he  may  draw  as  the  occasion  demands. 
It  would  be  well  even  for  accomplished  and  successful 
speakers  frequently  to  review  the  elements  of  Elocu- 
tion, and  to  keep  themselves  in  practice,  just  as  the 
most  successful  musicians  do  in  their  art. 

27.  True  Eloquence  requires  a  noble  Character. — But 
Elocution  embraces  an  element  still  higher  than  the 
mechanical  part,  and  an  intellectual  appreciation  of 
the  power  of  voice  and  manner.  It  is  pre-eminently 
a  virtue,  and  summons  to  its  aid  all  modes  of  legiti- 
mate influence  by  which  mind  acts  upon  mind.  A 

*  Part  I.  of  the  "  Fifth  Reader  of  the  School  and  Family  Series,  by 
Marcius  Willson,"  contains  an  excellent  summary  and  illustration  of 
the  elements  of  Elocution. 


OPINIONS    OF    WEBSTER   AND    MILTON.      371 

speaker  needs  to  be  respected  by  his  hearers  for  sin- 
cerity, ability,  earn'estness,  and  power,  He  must  be, 
or  be  believed  to  be,  what  he  seems.  Otherwise  he 
is  only  an  actor,  and  though  he  may  be  eloquent  as 
such,  the  people  are  merely  amused  or  entertained. 
Words  spoken  stammeringly  and  awkwardly  by  a 
man  of  solid  worth  have  great  power  which  no  graces 
of  enunciation  can  communicate  to  a  man  of  intellect- 
ual imbecility  or  moral  unworthiness.  On  this  subject 
Daniel  Webster  well  said  : 

28.  Opinion  of  Webster  on  this  Subject.—11  When  pub- 
lic bodies  are  to  be  addressed  on  momentous  occasions, 
when  great  interests  are  at  stake,  and  strong  passions 
excited,  nothing  is  valuable  in  speech,  further  than  it 
is  connected  with  high  intellectual  and  moral  endow- 
ments.    Clearness,  force,  and  earnestness  are  the  qual- 
ities which  produce  conviction.     True  eloquence  in- 
deed, does  not  consist  in  speech  ;  it  can  not  be  brought 
from  far.    Labor  and  learning  may  toil  for  it,  but  they 
toil  for  it  in  vain ;  words  and  phrases  may  be  mar- 
shalled in  every  way,  but  they  can  not  compass  it ;  it 
must  exist  in  the  man,  in  the  subject,  and  in  the  oc- 
casion.     Affected    passion,    intense    expression,   the 
pomp  of  declamation — all  may  aspire  after  it ;  they 
can  not  reach  it :  it  comes,  if  it  come  at  all,  like  the 
outbreaking  of  a  fountain  from  the  earth,  or  the  burst- 
ing  forth  of  volcanic  fires,  with  spontaneous,  original, 
native  force." 

29.  Opinion  of  Milton.— Milton  also,   whose  train- 
ing in  the  schools  was  the  best  that  his  country  and 
age  could  afford,  eloquently  says  : 


372  RHETORIC. 

"  For  me,  readers,  although  I  can  not  say  that  I  am 
utterly  untrained  in  those  rules  which  best  rhetoricians 
have  given,  or  unacquainted  with  those  examples 
which  the  prime  authors  of  eloquence  have  written  in 
any  learned  tongue ;  yet  true  eloquence  I  find  to  be 
none  but  the  serious  and  hearty  love  of  truth ;  and 
that  whose  mind  soever  is  fully  possessed  with  a  fer- 
vent desire  to  know  good  things,  and  with  the  dearest 
charity  to  infuse  the  knowledge  of  them  into  others, 
when  such  a  man  would  speak,  his  words  (by  what  I 
can  express),  like  so  many  nimble  and  airy  servitors, 
trip  about  him  at  command,  and  in  well-ordered  files, 
as  he  would  wish,  fall  aptly  into  their  own  places." 

30.  Extemjxrranecnis  Speaking. —  Here  may  be  a 
proper  place  again  to  urge  the  value  of  extemporane- 
ous speaking.  Reading  should  not  encroach  upon  the 
domain  of  oratory.  Good  extemporaneous  speaking 
requires  thorough  preparation.  It  is  well,  in  the  proc- 
ess of  training  for  it,  to  write  out,  in  full,  passages,  if 
not  entire  addresses,  to  be  spoken,  and  thoroughly  to 
commit  them  to  memory.  Soon  it  will  be  easy  to 
commit  to  memory  the  thoughts  and  facts,  leaving  the 
language  to  be  at  least  partly  spontaneous,  and  also  to 
interpolate  entirely  extemporaneous  passages.  Thus 
the  art  can  be  acquired  by  study  and  practice. 

Kxtemporaneous  speakers  will  be  likely  occasion- 
ally to  fail,  and  often  to  fall  below  their  desires  and 
what  they  believe  to  be  their  ability,  but  the  joys  and 
influence  of  success  will  more  than  compensate  for 
these  disappointments. 

Too  great  facility  in  extemporaneous  speech  often 


PRACTICAL   RULES.  373 

defeats  the  highest  success.  Naturally  easy  speakers, 
as  they  are  termed,  who  extemporize  volubly  without 
study,  are  usually  narrow  in  their  range,  shallow  in 
their  thoughts,  and  repetitious,  and  bring  a  reproach 
on  their  art.  Speakers  who  discard  the  use  of  the  man- 
uscript before  the  audience  should  spend  more  labor 
in  preparation  than  would  be  necessary  previously  to 
write  out  their  addresses. 

31.  Practical  Rules  of  Elocution.  —  The  following 
rules  embrace  the  most  valuable  general  principles 
of  Elocution : 

(1.)  Be  thoroughly  prepared  for  the  work  which 
you  intend  to  perform.  If  to  read  the  production  of 
another  person,  let  it  be  studied  beforehand,  so  that 
you  are  sure  of  comprehending  and  feeling  fully  the 
thoughts  and  emotions  of  the  author.  If  to  read  your 
own  production,  be  as  independent  as  possible  of  the 
manuscript.  If  to  speak  from  memory,  let  it  be  so 
well  committed  as  to  require  no  conscious  effort  to  re- 
call it.  If  to  speak  extemporaneously,  be  sure  that 
you  have  an  abundant  supply  of  material  on  hand, 
with  the  general  arrangement  or  order  thoroughly  at 
command.  Whoever  faithfully  obeys  this  rule,  when 
possible,  will  be  ready  to  make  an  efficient  speech, 
even  when  he  has  no  opportunity  to  prepare  for  it. 

(2.)  As  far  as  possible  be  unwearied,  and  in  good 
physical  and  mental  condition,  and  be  deliberate  and 
self-possessed,  remembering  that  if  you  have  a  right 
to  speak,  it  is  too  late  when  on  the  floor  to  entertain 
any  doubts  about  the  matter,  and  that  self-possession 
is  a  prime  requisite  of  successful  oratory. 


374  JlHKTnRIC. 

(3.)  Enunciate  distinctly  and  loud  enough,  in  all 
you  say,  to  be  heard  by  all  whom  you  wish  to  ad- 
dress, and  do  not  allow  yourself  to  speak  for  a  long 
time  with  such  excessive  energy  of  voice  and  manner 
as  to  react  on  yourself,  and  loosen  your  hold  upon  the 
audience,  and  remember  the  advantage  of  speaking 
with  fully  inflated  lungs. 

{4.)  Be  thoroughly  in  earnest.  Avoid  unnecessary 
repetitions,  and  seek  brevity. 

(5.)  Though  entirely  absorbed  in  the  subject,  and 
unconscious  of  rules,  except  only  so  far  as  to  prevent 
you  from  glaringly  violating  them,  still  persistently 
oppose  and  break  up  any  known  evil  habit  of  posi- 
tion, gesture,  or  intonation. 


INDEX. 


A. 

Accent,  294. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  Personifica- 
tion, 152. 

Addresses,  260. 

Adjectives  and  adverbs,  place  of,  196. 

Agassiz,  specimen  of  style  of,  36. 

Alexander,  Dr.  J.  A.,  quoted,  "Mon- 
osyllabics,"  33. 

Alexandrine  Verse,  296. 

Allegories,  1  •_'•_>. 

,  personification  used  in,  152. 

,  relations  of,  to  art,  128. 

Alliteration,  298. 

Allusions,  95. 

Ambiguity,  68. 

,  intentional,  70. 

Americanisms,  66,  236. 

Anapest,  295. 

Anecdotes,  27-1. 

Anglo-Saxon  language,  30. 

Aiiti-i-limax,  210. 

Antithesis,  113. 

combined  with  Comparison, 

119.  . 

connected  with  Rhythm,  214. 

Apostrophe,  156. 

,  Edward  Everett  on,  158. 

Arguments,  arrangement  of,  335. 

Art,  relation  of,  to  Allegory,  128. 

Articulation,  denned  bv  Sheridan, 
358. 

,  importance  of  distinct,  355. 

Autonomasia,  84. 


B. 


Bacon,  Lord,  advice  of,  on  writing, 
46. 


Bacon,   Lord,    on    language     and 

thought,  19. 

,  on  style,  38. 

,  on  time  to  study  Rhetoric,  320. 

,  wit  of,  183. 

Bancroft,  George,  climax  from,  209. 

,  Loose  Sentences,  203. 

,  Metaphor,  105. 

,  Tropes,  79. 

Barry,   James,   on    language    and 

painting,  24. 
Bayne,    Peter,    metaphors    quoted 

from,  110. 
Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  illustration  of 

Irony,  143. 
Bethune,  Rev.  Dr.,  metaphor  from, 

104. 

Biographies,  275. 
Bolingbroke,    Lord,  on    Eloquence, 

344. 

Boswell  as  a  biographer,  275. 
Brougham,  Lord,  on  Amplification, 

109. 
,  on  ancient  oratory,  106. 


,  on  style  of  scientific  papers, 

256. 

— ,  on  writing  speeches,  261. 

— ,  sentences  by,  written  twenty 

times,  205. 
Buckle,  H.  T.,  on  style  of  educated 

women,  41. 
Buffon  on  style,  236. 
Burke,  illustration  of  Burlesque,  181. 
Burlesque,  181. 
Bushnell,  Rev.  Dr.  H.,  allusion  from, 

98. 

,  on  a  new  language,  22. 

Byron,  Lord,  description  of  Poetry, 

286. 
,  illustrates  Comparison,  90. 


370 


1XDEX. 


Byron,  Lord,  illustrates  Personifica- 
tion, 154. 

.  ViMon,  166. 

,  Word-painting,  23. 


a 


Caird,  Rev.  Dr.,  illustration  of  Com- 
parison, 89. 

Callimachus,  epigram  from.  ! 
Campbell,  Dr..  on  Antithesis,  1'Jl. 
oinas,  Apostrophe  from, 

,  on  earnestness,  243. 

,  on  rij.iil  \\r 

Chest- rm-M.  Lord,  on  proverbs,  232. 
•>ice  of  words,  47. 

,  hvpcrlx>le.  from,  134. 

,  long  sentence  from,  199. 

.  p  ri.Kl  from,  206. 

,  style  of  I : r-  k: 

Choice  of  subjects,  315. 

Cicero,  figurative  language,  106. 

Climax,  209. 

Coleridiro,  S.  T.,  illustration  of  Alle- 
gory 

Comparisons,  87. 

,  combined  with  antitheses,  119. 

Construction  of  Sentences,  195. 

Corwin,  illustration  of  Irony,  144. 

Coultas,  H.,  illustration  of  Redun- 
dancy, 58. 

Cowper,  illustration  of  Personifica- 
ti.. n.148. 

.  illustration  of  Idiomatic  Style, 

230. 

Curran,  illustration  of  Wit,  175. 

D. 

Deaf  and  dumb,  lancniage  of,  20. 
Defoe   (Robinson   Crusoe),  quoted, 

154. 
Demosthenes,   simplicity   of  style, 

106. 

Derzhavin,  comparison  from,  88. 
Description,  Invention  in,  316. 
Dialogues,  279. 

in  History,  282. 

Diaries,  276. 


Dickens  quoted,  to  illustrate  Vision, 

168. 

Didactic  production  - 
Discussion,  rules  for,  333. 
Doddridge,  epigram  quoted,  179. 


Earnestness,  243. 

i,248. 

Elocution,  advantage  of  practice  in, 
369. 

an  art. 

defined,  351. 

,  iim-Ilcctual  character  of,  366. 

,  mechanical  elements  of,  355. 

.opinion  of  Whai'-ly  <>n. 

,  opinion  of  Webster  on,  371. 

,  pr  .<  ik-al  rules  of.  373. 

,  defined  by  Bolingbroke,  344. 

,  Milton,  345,  372. 

requires  a  good  character,  370. 

Emerson,  R.  W.,  on  short  words,  44. 

,  on  Trop 

r.mmi'it.  Pathos  illustrated,  249. 
j  Emotion.  Jl». 
Emphatic  Pauses,  368. 

h  Language,  elasticity  of,  217. 

,  euphony  of,  216. 

,  not  learned  from  dictionaries, 

235. 

:n,  120. 

hry  Composition,  268. 
nus,  quoted  by  Bacon,  184. 
.  language  of,  42." 

;t,  Edward,  Apostrophe  ex- 
plained, 158. 

,  Apostrophe  illustrated  from, 

157. 

,  Historical  Present  illustrated, 

167. 

,  choice  sentence  from,  198. 

,  Personification,  153. 

,  Sermocinatio,  162. 

Exaggeration,  254. 

Exclamations,  209. 

Extemporaneous  speaking,  261,  265, 
372. 


1SDEX. 


377 


F. 

Fables,  122. 

Falsehood,  can  one  plead  for?  245. 

Feet,  in  poetry,  295. 

Fessenden,  W.  D.,  quoted  to  illus- 
trate Irony,  143. 

Fiction,  283. 

Figurative  Language  and  Emotion, 
247. 

Figures,  miscellaneous  examples  of, 
170. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  anecdote  of, 
234. 

,  quoted  to  illustrate  Exaggera- 
tion, 133. 

,  practice  of,  in  Invention,  327. 

,  witticism  of,  quoted,  178. 

Froude,  quoted  to  illustrate  Argu- 
mentative Comparison,  91. 


G. 

Garrick,  sensibility  of,  354. 

Gaussen,  quoted  to  illustrate  Exag- 
geration, 133. 

Gesticulation,  364. 

Gibbon,  quoted  to  illustrate  Meta- 
phors, 105. 

- — ,  labors  of,  to  acquire  a  good 
style,  237. 

Goethe,  quoted  to  illustrate  Allusion, 
96. 

Grammar,  general.  189. 

Greek  language,  33. 

Greeley,  H.,  quoted  to  illustrate 
Comparisons,  93. 


H. 

Hamilton,  Dr.  R.  W.,  quoted  to  il- 
lustrate Apostrophe,  156. 

Hamilton,  Sir  Wm.,  on  relation  of 
words  to  thought,  19. 

,  use  of  idioms  by,  230,  231. 

Hare,  Archbishop,  ironical  writing 
of,  141. 

Hayne,  R.  Y.,  speech  of,  in  Senate, 
337. 


Health,  importance  of,  to  a  speaker, 
359. 

Henry,  Patrick,  scriptural  allusion 
by,  95. 

Hexameter  Verse,  297. 

Historians,  style  of,  278. 

Historical  Present,  167. 

History,  277. 

,  Invention  in,  324. 

Hitchcock,  Rev.  Dr.,  to  illustrate 
Personification,  147. 

Holland,  Dr.  J.  J.,  on  value  of  words, 
71. 

Holmes,  Dr.  0.  W.,  on  morality  of 
words,  71. 

Hood,  Thomas,  to  illustrate  Allu- 
sions, 99. 

Hooker,  Rev.  R.,  a  period  quoted 
from,  204. 

Hopkins,  Rev.  Dr.,  to  illustrate  Vis- 
ion, 169. 

Hugo,  Victor,  to  illustrate  Antithet- 
ical Comparison,  119. 

Humor,  182. 

Huntmgton,  Rev.  Dr.,  quoted  to  il- 
lustrate Personification,  150. 

Huxley,  Prof.,  quoted  to  illustrate 
Repetition,  55. 

Hyperbole,  131. 


I. 


Idiomatic  Style,  231. 
Idioms,  228. 

,  new,  232. 

Imagination   should  be   cultivated, 

291. 
Information,    importance    of,   to    a 

writer,  319. 
Innuendo,  100. 
Interjections,  209. 
Interrogation,  208. 
Invention,  definitions  of,  311. 

,  explanations  of,  319,  329,  343. 

,  in  abstract  subjects,  329. 

,  in  descriptions,  316. 

— ,  in  discussions,  333. 

— ,  in  miscellaneous   productions, 

343. 

— ,  in  narration,  323. 


378 


INDEX. 


Invention  in  style,  343. 

,  rules  on,  312. 

Irony. 

Irving,  Washington,  quoted  to  illus- 
trate Irony,  142. 
Its,  pronoun,  when  first  used,  1 17. 


J. 


Jefferson,  Thomas,  anecdote  of  Dr. 


Macaiilay.  T.  B.,  specimen  of  Inven- 
tion from,  324. 

Maurice,  Kev.  F.  D.,  illustrates  Idio- 
matic Style,  233. 

Haoorj 

Merivale.  allusion  from,  99. 

M«'t:i],lmrs.  102. 

,  examples  of,  104. 

,  origin  of.  I1 '7. 

,  Shakspeare's,  111 

,  specimens,  170. 


Motonoiny,  78,  85. 

Mill,  John  Stuart  on  Invention,  311. 


Franklin. 

Job,  Book  of. 

Johnson,  Samuel,  quoted   to   illus- 
trate Antithesis,  119.  Milton,  John,  number  of  words  used 

,  quoted  to  illustrate  Irony,  140.       by,  55. 

Johnsonian  stylo,  40, 42. 

Journals,  276. 


Laboulaye,  misunderstands  an  En- 
glish pun,  178. 

Language,  changes  in,  235. 

,  Englisli. 

,  Greek,  33. 

,  how  acquired,  27. 

,  morality  of,  71. 

,  natural,"  18. 

,  origin  of,  21. 

,  Painting,  Sculpture,  and,  24. 

Lecture 

Lessing  on  style,  241. 

Letters,  268. 

Liptotes,  137. 

Longfellow,  quoted  to  illustrate  Al- 
IUMOIIS,  98. 

,  quoted  to  illustrate  Hex 

Verse,  297. 

Lungs,  proper    inflation    of,   when 
speaking,  362. 


Macaulay,  T.  B.,  criticism  of  Dr. 
Johnson's  style,  39. 

,  quoted  to  illustrate  Compar- 
ison, 89. 

,  remark  of,  on  Bacon's  wit.  is  I. 


opinion  of,  on  eloquent 
,  quoted  to  illustrate  Onomato- 

py- 

,  quoted  to  illustrate  Personifica- 
tion, 154. 
Mi»m.>yllal,i. 

Morality  of  Language.  71. 
Motley  ,'th;>  historian,  alluded  to,  278. 


N. 

Natural  language,  18. 

Natural   manner  in    speaking,  352, 

362. 
Nouns  or  verbs  first,  190. 


a 


Objects  of  writers  and  speakers,  256. 
Obsolete  words,  63. 
Olin,  Rev.  Dr.  S.,  to  illustrate  Met- 
aphors, 104. 
Onomatopy,  218. 
i  Orations,  263. 
Oratory,  367. 

,  metaphors  in,  106. 

requires  virtue,  370. 


P. 


Painting,  Sculpture,  and  Language, 

•Jl. 


INDEX. 


379 


Pantomime,  19. 

Parable  of  Prodigal  Son,  31. 

Parallelism  in  poetry,  293. 

Parentheses,  224. 

Parodies,  180. 

Paronomasia,  175. 

Pathos,  249. 

Paucity  of  words,  53. 

I'uiisi-s  in  poetrv,  295. 

Pauses,  emphat'ic*368. 

Pedantic  allusions,  100. 

Periods,  204. 

Personalities  in  debate,  336. 

Personification,  145. 

of  second  degree,  148. 

of  third  degree,  153. 

sometimes  employed  for  con- 

.     ciseness,  149. 

Perspicuity,  68,  223. 

intentionally  violated,  225. 

I'lu-i.m-m,  314. 

Pleas,  266. 

Plato,  fable  from,  quoted,  125. 

Poetical  Feet,  295. 

Poetry  and  Prophecy,  291. 

Poetry,  definition  o£  286,  300. 

,  Dramatic,  305. 

,  Epic,  304. 

,  forms  of,  292. 

,  Humorous,  306. 

,  modified  by  science,  290. 

,  one  of  the  Fine  Arts,  288. 

,  Religions  and  Lyric,  302. 

,  species  ofj  302. 

Pope,  to  illustrate  Repetition,  211. 

Positions  of  body  in  speaking,  364. 

Prescott,  on  imitation,  241. 

,  quoted,  Argumentative  Com- 
parison, 91. 

,  labors  of,  to  acquire  a  good 

style,  238. 

,  quoted,  Personification,  148. 

,  quoted,  use  of  foreign  words,  61. 

Prodigal  Son,  Parable  of,  quoted,  31. 

Pronouns  of  Gender  and  Personifica- 
tion, 146. 

Prophetic  Vision,  168. 

Propositions,  193. 

Prosopopoeia,  155. 

Proverbs,  231 


Proverbs,  Antithetical,  117. 

,  New,  232. 

Provincialisms,  66. 
Pulpit,  rhetoric  of  the,  247. 
Puns,  176. 

,  suggesting  two  languages,  177. 

,  untranslatable,  178. 

Purity  of  words,  60. 


Quintilian,  allegory   from,   quoted, 

127. 

,  quoted  on  Sermocinatio,  162. 

,  quoted  on  value  of  words,  20. 

Quincey,  De,  idiomatic  style  of,  233. 
,  efforts  to  improve  his  style, 

239. 
,  on  Perspicuity,  224. 


R. 

Randolph,  quoted  to  illustrate  Hv- 

berpole,  134. 
Redundancy,  56. 
Repetition,  211. 
Representative  writing,  279. 
Reviews,  272. 
Rhetoric  defined,  17. 

,  morality  of,  258. 

Rhyme,  298. 
Rhythm,  213,  294. 
Ridicule,  test  of  truth,  185. 
Roche,  Sir  Boyle,  quoted,  175. 
Rogers,  Prof.  H.,  quoted,  Irony,  141 


S. 


Sarcasm,  178, 182. 

Satires,  182. 

Scientific  productions,  style  of,  36. 

Scott,  Walter,  use  of  foreign  words, 

61. 
Sculpture,  Painting,  and  Language 

24. 

Senate,  U.  S.,  discussion  in,  337. 
Sentences,  loose,  202. 


380 


Sentences,  short  and  long,  199. 

Sermocinatiu.  1  >'.•_'. 

Sermons,  266. 

Sbakspeare,  his  description  of  poetrv, 
286. 

,  mixed  metaphors  of,  111. 

,  number  of  words  l>\ 

,  quoted  to  illustrate  Irony,  139, 

140. 

,  quoted  to  illustrate  Personifica- 
tion. 155. 

,  soliloquies  of,  282. 

Soliloquies,  281. 

Songs,  303. 

Sonnet,  298. 

Sound,  relation  of,  to  thought,  366. 

,  rough  and  smooth. 

South,  Dr.,  metaphor  from,  102. 

South. -y.  l:«.l»ert,  on  styl- . 

Speech"  rate  of,  358. 

Speeches  should  be  written,  261. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  quoted  to  illustrate 
Repetition,  211. 

,  opinion  of,  on  styl--. 

Stanley.  A.  P..  metaphor  from,  104. 

Stanley,  Lord,  on  style. 

Stanza- 

Stowe.  Mrs.  II.  B.,  writings  of,  285. 

Style.  I 

— — ,  appropriate  to  fiction,  284. 

,  how  to  acquire  a  good,  I 

,  idiomati 

,  opinion  of  Spencer  on,  227. 

,  should  be  adapted,  226. 

,  simple,  requires  thought,  35. 

Subjects,  choice  of,  315. 

Summerfield,  Rev.  John,  wit  of,  183. 

Synechdoche,  78, 83. 

Synonymes,  49. 


T. 

Taste,  251.    • 
Technical  terms,  51. 
Themes  in  abstract  subjects,  332. 

in  description. 

in  discussion,  341. 

in  miscellaneous  subjects,  345. 

in  narration,  328. 

,  what  to  write  upon,  320. 


Tilton,  Theodore,  on  word-,  71. 

Tracts. 

Translations  recommended,  240. 

Travel,  books  of,  277. 

.  180. 
Treatise 
Tropes.  77. 

,  classification  of,  83. 

,  new,  82. 

that  express  Cental  action,  80. 

Tyndall,  Prof.,  antithesis  from,  quo- 
ted, 116. 

U. 

Unity  defme.l. 
Unit'ies,  the  three,  282. 


V. 

Verbs  or  nouns  first,  190. 
Verse,  294, 296. 

,  advantage  of  writing,  307. 

,  nonsensical,  301. 

,  without  true  poetry,  219. 

Vision,  165. 
Vocal  >ulary,  28 

,  how  to  obtain  a,  45. 

,  natural  limit  to,  189. 

Voice,  accents,  slides,  etc.,  368. 

,  adaptation  of.  360. 

,  peculiarities  of,  360. 

,  range  of,  359. 

.  relation  of,  to  thought,  366. 

,  too  loud,  361. 

Vulgarisms,  67. 


W. 

Warburton,    Archbishop,    anecdote 
from. 

,  on  origin  of  metaphors,  107. 

Washington,  George,  a  letter  from, 

,  to  illustrate  Hyperbole,  132. 

.  to    illustrate    Personification, 

151. 
Watts,  Isaac,  referred  to,  302. 


INDEX. 


381 


Wuhster,  Daniel,  quoted,  Classical 

Allusion,  99. 

,  quoted,  Metaphors,  104,  107. 

,  Pathos,  249. 

,  Short  Sentences,  201. 

,  Simple  Words,  35. 

,  Vision,  165. 

,  opinion  of,  on  eloquence,  371. 

,  remarks  of,  on  style,  239. 

,  speech  of,  in  Senate,  337. 

,  style  of,  criticised  by  Everett, 

158. 
,  transposition  of  a  sentence  of, 

197. 
Wesley,  John,  quoted,  Sermocinatio, 

163. 

,  maxim  originated  by,  233. 

Wesley,  Charles,  referred  "to,  302. 
Whately,  Archbishop,  exaggeration 

by,  254. 

,  on  elocution,  352,  369. 

,  on  styk 


Whedon,  D.D.,  classical  allusion  by, 

97. 

White,  J.  Blanco,  sonnet  of,  298. 
Wit,  173. 

,  directions  upon  use  of,  185. 

,  in  thought,  180. 

Women,  well-educated,  style  of,  41. 
Words  change  their  meaning,  190. 

,  degeneracy  of,  64. 

,  compound,  191. 

,  foreign,  61. 

,  grouping  of,  189. 

,  long,  37. 

,  morality  of,  71. 

,  new,  52". 

,  number  of,  in  ordinary  use,  55. 

,  purity  of,  60. 

,  short,  30. 

,  symbolically  employed,  70. 

,  synonymous,  49. 

Word-painting,  23. 
Written  addresses,  261, 372. 


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